Chapter 10 + Unit 6 (AP Biology 2026 and Mrs. Eaton) Flashcards

it is counting carbons clockwise from the oxygen, going from 1' to 5'

phosphate group linked to 5-carbon sugar linked to nitrogenous base

link sugars and phosphates in nucleotides (forming the sugar-phosphate backbone)

double ringed nitrogenous bases (A and G - two rings as Pure as Gold)

single ringed nitrogenous bases (C, T, U)

phosphate group

OH (hydroxyl) group

the DNA strands run in opposite directions, each with a 5' end and a 3' end (5' always opposite 3' of complementary strand)

small, double-stranded, circular DNA molecules in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

bunches of histones, package eukaryotic chromatin

loose DNA in the nucleus, active for transcription

genetic material is fully condensed into coils, inactive

unwinds the double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds in DNA replication

DNA strands exposed in a y-shape from helicase opening them, with DNA replication proceeding in both direction from the origin

where DNA replication begins, proteins attach here to begin strand separation

cut and region the helix to prevent it from tangling, stop helix from twisting in DNA replication

adds the nucleotides to the freshly built strand, only 5' 3 for new strand and 3' to 5' for old strand in DNA replication

it is degraded by enzymes and replaced with DNA

adds a short strand of RNA nucleotides (RNA primer) to start off replication

one DNA strand is made continuously in DNA replication by DNA polymerase, 5' to 3' towards forking point

made discontinuously in pieces by DNA polymerase, 5' to 3' direction away from forking point

the pieces of nucleotides that make up the lagging strand

links the Okazaki fragments to produce a continuous strand in DNA replication

half of each new molecule was a part of the original one, while the other half is a new strand in DNA replication

the ends of the DNA molecule, contains unimportant DNA and gets shorter over time since chromosome loses base pairs at the end

DNA --> mRNA --> protein --> expression

both in the cytoplasm at the same time

temporary RNA version of DNA, exits nucleus

makes up parts of the ribosomes, produced in nucleolus

shuttles amino acids to ribosomes, matches amino acids to anticodons to codons by reading mRNA

anticodon on one side, amino acid on the other,

anticodons in tRNA can pair against base matching with their third nucleotide

small snippets of RNA naturally made in the body, bind to specific RNA sequences to mark for destruction (e.g. siRNA and miRNA)

prokaryotes will transcribe a recipe used to make several proteins, unlike eukaryotes

eukaryotes tend to have one gene that gets transcribed to one mRNA translated into one protein

unwind and unzip DNA using helicase

special sequences in the DNA strand where transcription begins (like docking sites at a runway), no primer in transcription

TATA box, weak bonds (double instead of triple) allows RNA polymerase to break through

the strand that serves as a template for RNA, only copy one of the 2 DNA strands

dormant strand not copied in transcription

RNA polymerase builds RNA, adding to 3' side of template strand (build new mRNA 5' to 3')

upstream of actual coding part of gene so polymerase can get set up before the bases it needs to transcribe, no need for a primer

RNA separates from the DNA template

special sequence of bases in DNA template that signals end of the gene, lots of C's and G's (STRONGER triple bonds) causes RNA polymerase to release

eukaryotes

freshly transcribed RNA in eukaryotes, still needs to be processed

coding regions of hnRNA, are EXpressed and EXit the nucleus

non-coding regions of hnRNA, INtervening sequences and stay IN the nucleus

when introns are removed from the mRNA in processing, can splice in different ways with different exons

the RNA-protein complex that does the splicing of introns in mRNA processing

part of spliceosomes that recognize the start and end of introns

a long string of adenine nucleotides at the 3' end of processed mRNA

one guanine nucleotide at the 5' end of processed mRNA

holds deactivated tRNA so it can exit after its amino acid has been added

holds tRNA with next amino acids to be added to the chain

holds tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain

tRNA binding site, binds with small subunit after it attaches to mRNA, has E, P, and A sites

mRNA binding site

ribosome attached to mRNA, shuttles from A to P to E binding sites

charged tRNA and enzymes need ATP to link AA and tRNA

AUG (methionine), first to go into ribosome in initiation

addition of amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain by tRNA reading mRNA

UAA, UGA, UAG (do not code for an amino acid)

the ribosome runs into one of three stop codons

largest point of gene expression regulation, occurs before transcription, transcription factors encourage or inhibit transcription's start

can encourage or inhibit the start of transcription by adjusting difficulty for RNA polymerase to get to start site, influence expressed genes

changes to the packaging of DNA that alter the ability of transcription machinery to access a gene, occurs through histone tightness modification

a cluster of genes used to control a single promoter in bacteria

controls expression of enzymes that break down lactose

code for enzymes needed in chemical reaction, usually transcribed at the same time to produce particular enzymes

where RNA polymerase binds to begin transcription

region that controls where transcription will occur, where repressor binds

codes for specific regulatory protein called the repressor

can attach to operator and block transcription, binds = transcription will not occur

binds to the repressor and causes it to fall off, turns on transcription

when the cell creates RNA, then decides it should not be translated into a protein, RNAi binds to RNA with BP = double stranded RNA which is destroyed

cell has made a protein, but doesn't need it; mostly enzymes made ahead of time, turn off as needed

the succession of stages the cell changes in shape and organization throughout its development

can develop into any type of cell

once cells become specialized, their futures options are limited (no dedifferentiation; a future muscle cells can't turn into a bone cell)

the early genes that turn certain developing embryonic cells into future specialized cells, make sure the right gene is activated or part is modified at the right time

a subset of homeotic genes

programmed cell death, destroys scaffolding parts of developing embryo (toe webs)

an error in the genetic code

chemicals, radiation, polymerase mistakes

DNA to prevent inheritance of them, RNA does not have

single nucleotide base is substituted for another

point mutations that lead to a stop codon (terminate translation early)

point mutations that lead to a different amino acid

point mutations that code for the same amino acid with no change to the overall protein sequence

gene rearrangement that results in gain / loss of a gene(s) and frameshift

changes the sequence of codons (triplets) used by the ribosome to make proteins, everything after is affected

gene rearrangements that result in an extra copy of genes from unequal crossing over or chromosome rearrangement, results in new traits

changes in orientation of chromosomal regions

two different chromosomes break and rejoin in a way that causes the DNA sequence or gene to be lost, repeated, or interrupted (can also be one chromosome breaking in 2 places)

gene segments that can cut / paste themselves throughout the genome

swap DNA with other bacterial cells

uptake of DNA for bacteria

movement of DNA within and between DNA molecules for bacteria

conjugation, transformation, transposition

nonliving agents capable of infecting cells, use host cell machinery to replicate, made of protein shell (capsid) and genetic material

carries genes for building the capsid and anything else the virus needs that the host cannot provide

if two viruses infect the same cell

the virus immediately starts using the host cell's machinery to replicate the genetic material and create more capsid proteins, lyse to release viruses

virus incorporates itself into host genome and remains dormant until it is triggered, can remain dormant for a long time until triggered, means cell can divide with viral DNA

host cell's genome before phage

the transfer of DNA between bacterial cells using a lysogenic virus. host DNA is packaged into new viral particles so next infected cell has previous host DNA and viral genome

viruses with a lipid envelope, no need to break out of cell but bud out of membrane instead

use enzyme reverse transcriptase to convert their RNA genomes into DNA (e.g. HIV), high mutation rates and no proofreading = hard to treat

generated by combining DNA from multiple sources to create a unique DNA molecule not found in nature

produces new organisms or products by transferring genes between cells

lab technique for making billions of identical gene copies in hours, DNA used for phylogenetic analyses

the process of making many copies of genes

the machine used that mimics the process of DNA replication

the process of giving bacteria foreign DNA (e.g. making insulin from bacteria or for gene expression studies)

separates DNA fragments by weight and charge

create a molecular fingerprint by cutting in specific, personally unique patterns

the unique restriction fragments of individuals

when RFLPs from DNA at the crime scene are compared to the suspects' RFLP

used to determine the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecules

clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, molecular scissors that cut and paste

Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier, 2 female scientists

cure lifelong, inherited diseases; don't use on gametes or early development embryos; only stem cells

protein, DNA cutting enzyme, has RNA guide inside with the necessary sequence, surrounded by enzyme

very, any Joe Schmoe can make in 3 weeks

lighter components of a solution, in the liquid after centrifuging

naturally occurring enzyme used to break open cells

water expands, leads to breakage

negatively charged his amino acids

breaks bond between nickel bead and fluorescent proteins by making nickel beads more negative and the R groups of the his more positive