front 1 What is #' in sugar? | back 1 it is counting carbons clockwise from the oxygen, going from 1' to 5' |
front 2 nucleotide components | back 2 phosphate group linked to 5-carbon sugar linked to nitrogenous base |
front 3 phosphodiester bonds (AP) | back 3 link sugars and phosphates in nucleotides (forming the sugar-phosphate backbone) |
front 4 purines | back 4 double ringed nitrogenous bases (A and G - two rings as Pure as Gold) |
front 5 pyrimidines | back 5 single ringed nitrogenous bases (C, T, U) |
front 6 What is attached to the 5' end of DNA? | back 6 phosphate group |
front 7 What is attached to the 3' end of DNA? | back 7 OH (hydroxyl) group |
front 8 antiparallel | back 8 the DNA strands run in opposite directions, each with a 5' end and a 3' end (5' always opposite 3' of complementary strand) |
front 9 plasmids | back 9 small, double-stranded, circular DNA molecules in prokaryotes and eukaryotes |
front 10 nucleosome (AP) | back 10 bunches of histones, package eukaryotic chromatin |
front 11 euchromatin (AP) | back 11 loose DNA in the nucleus, active for transcription |
front 12 heterochromatin (AP) | back 12 genetic material is fully condensed into coils, inactive |
front 13 DNA helicase | back 13 unwinds the double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds in DNA replication |
front 14 replication bubbles | back 14 DNA strands exposed in a y-shape from helicase opening them, with DNA replication proceeding in both direction from the origin |
front 15 origins of replication | back 15 where DNA replication begins, proteins attach here to begin strand separation |
front 16 DNA topoisomerases (AP) | back 16 cut and region the helix to prevent it from tangling, stop helix from twisting in DNA replication |
front 17 DNA polymerase | back 17 adds the nucleotides to the freshly built strand, only 5' 3 for new strand and 3' to 5' for old strand in DNA replication |
front 18 What happens to RNA primase after DNA replication kicks off? | back 18 it is degraded by enzymes and replaced with DNA |
front 19 RNA primase | back 19 adds a short strand of RNA nucleotides (RNA primer) to start off replication |
front 20 leading strand | back 20 one DNA strand is made continuously in DNA replication by DNA polymerase, 5' to 3' towards forking point |
front 21 lagging strand | back 21 made discontinuously in pieces by DNA polymerase, 5' to 3' direction away from forking point |
front 22 Okazaki fragments | back 22 the pieces of nucleotides that make up the lagging strand |
front 23 DNA ligase | back 23 links the Okazaki fragments to produce a continuous strand in DNA replication |
front 24 semiconservative | back 24 half of each new molecule was a part of the original one, while the other half is a new strand in DNA replication |
front 25 telomeres (AP) | back 25 the ends of the DNA molecule, contains unimportant DNA and gets shorter over time since chromosome loses base pairs at the end |
front 26 central dogma | back 26 DNA --> mRNA --> protein --> expression |
front 27 Where do transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes? | back 27 both in the cytoplasm at the same time |
front 28 messenger RNA (mRNA) | back 28 temporary RNA version of DNA, exits nucleus |
front 29 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) | back 29 makes up parts of the ribosomes, produced in nucleolus |
front 30 transfer RNA (tRNA) | back 30 shuttles amino acids to ribosomes, matches amino acids to anticodons to codons by reading mRNA |
front 31 What is the structure of tRNA? | back 31 anticodon on one side, amino acid on the other, |
front 32 wobble pairing | back 32 anticodons in tRNA can pair against base matching with their third nucleotide |
front 33 interfering RNAs (RNAi) | back 33 small snippets of RNA naturally made in the body, bind to specific RNA sequences to mark for destruction (e.g. siRNA and miRNA) |
front 34 polycistronic transcript | back 34 prokaryotes will transcribe a recipe used to make several proteins, unlike eukaryotes |
front 35 monocistronic | back 35 eukaryotes tend to have one gene that gets transcribed to one mRNA translated into one protein |
front 36 initiation (transcription) | back 36 unwind and unzip DNA using helicase |
front 37 promoters | back 37 special sequences in the DNA strand where transcription begins (like docking sites at a runway), no primer in transcription |
front 38 What are promoters made up of? | back 38 TATA box, weak bonds (double instead of triple) allows RNA polymerase to break through |
front 39 antisense strand / noncoding strand / minus-strand / template strand | back 39 the strand that serves as a template for RNA, only copy one of the 2 DNA strands |
front 40 sense strand / coding strand | back 40 dormant strand not copied in transcription |
front 41 elongation (transcription) | back 41 RNA polymerase builds RNA, adding to 3' side of template strand (build new mRNA 5' to 3') |
front 42 promoter region | back 42 upstream of actual coding part of gene so polymerase can get set up before the bases it needs to transcribe, no need for a primer |
front 43 termination (transcription) | back 43 RNA separates from the DNA template |
front 44 terminator | back 44 special sequence of bases in DNA template that signals end of the gene, lots of C's and G's (STRONGER triple bonds) causes RNA polymerase to release |
front 45 Do eukaryotes or prokaryotes need extra mRNA processing? | back 45 eukaryotes |
front 46 heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) (AP) | back 46 freshly transcribed RNA in eukaryotes, still needs to be processed |
front 47 exons | back 47 coding regions of hnRNA, are EXpressed and EXit the nucleus |
front 48 introns | back 48 non-coding regions of hnRNA, INtervening sequences and stay IN the nucleus |
front 49 splicing | back 49 when introns are removed from the mRNA in processing, can splice in different ways with different exons |
front 50 spliceosome | back 50 the RNA-protein complex that does the splicing of introns in mRNA processing |
front 51 small nuclear ribonuclear proteins (snurps) | back 51 part of spliceosomes that recognize the start and end of introns |
front 52 poly (A) tail | back 52 a long string of adenine nucleotides at the 3' end of processed mRNA |
front 53 5' GTP cap | back 53 one guanine nucleotide at the 5' end of processed mRNA |
front 54 exit (E) site (AP) | back 54 holds deactivated tRNA so it can exit after its amino acid has been added |
front 55 adding (A) site | back 55 holds tRNA with next amino acids to be added to the chain |
front 56 primary (P) site | back 56 holds tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain |
front 57 large subunit of ribosome | back 57 tRNA binding site, binds with small subunit after it attaches to mRNA, has E, P, and A sites |
front 58 small subunit of ribosome | back 58 mRNA binding site |
front 59 initiation (translation) | back 59 ribosome attached to mRNA, shuttles from A to P to E binding sites |
front 60 How is tRNA linked to amino acids? | back 60 charged tRNA and enzymes need ATP to link AA and tRNA |
front 61 start codon | back 61 AUG (methionine), first to go into ribosome in initiation |
front 62 elongation (translation) | back 62 addition of amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain by tRNA reading mRNA |
front 63 stop codons | back 63 UAA, UGA, UAG (do not code for an amino acid) |
front 64 termination (translation) | back 64 the ribosome runs into one of three stop codons |
front 65 pre-transcriptional regulation | back 65 largest point of gene expression regulation, occurs before transcription, transcription factors encourage or inhibit transcription's start |
front 66 transcription factors | back 66 can encourage or inhibit the start of transcription by adjusting difficulty for RNA polymerase to get to start site, influence expressed genes |
front 67 epigenetic changes | back 67 changes to the packaging of DNA that alter the ability of transcription machinery to access a gene, occurs through histone tightness modification |
front 68 operons | back 68 a cluster of genes used to control a single promoter in bacteria |
front 69 lac operon | back 69 controls expression of enzymes that break down lactose |
front 70 structural genes | back 70 code for enzymes needed in chemical reaction, usually transcribed at the same time to produce particular enzymes |
front 71 promoter gene | back 71 where RNA polymerase binds to begin transcription |
front 72 operator | back 72 region that controls where transcription will occur, where repressor binds |
front 73 regulatory genes | back 73 codes for specific regulatory protein called the repressor |
front 74 repressor | back 74 can attach to operator and block transcription, binds = transcription will not occur |
front 75 inducer | back 75 binds to the repressor and causes it to fall off, turns on transcription |
front 76 post-transcriptional regulation | back 76 when the cell creates RNA, then decides it should not be translated into a protein, RNAi binds to RNA with BP = double stranded RNA which is destroyed |
front 77 post-translational regulation | back 77 cell has made a protein, but doesn't need it; mostly enzymes made ahead of time, turn off as needed |
front 78 morphogenesis | back 78 the succession of stages the cell changes in shape and organization throughout its development |
front 79 undifferentiated cells | back 79 can develop into any type of cell |
front 80 differentiated cells | back 80 once cells become specialized, their futures options are limited (no dedifferentiation; a future muscle cells can't turn into a bone cell) |
front 81 homeotic genes | back 81 the early genes that turn certain developing embryonic cells into future specialized cells, make sure the right gene is activated or part is modified at the right time |
front 82 Hox genes | back 82 a subset of homeotic genes |
front 83 apoptosis | back 83 programmed cell death, destroys scaffolding parts of developing embryo (toe webs) |
front 84 mutation | back 84 an error in the genetic code |
front 85 causes of mutation | back 85 chemicals, radiation, polymerase mistakes |
front 86 What has proofreading abilities? | back 86 DNA to prevent inheritance of them, RNA does not have |
front 87 base substitution (point) mutations | back 87 single nucleotide base is substituted for another |
front 88 nonsense mutation | back 88 point mutations that lead to a stop codon (terminate translation early) |
front 89 missense mutations | back 89 point mutations that lead to a different amino acid |
front 90 silent mutation | back 90 point mutations that code for the same amino acid with no change to the overall protein sequence |
front 91 insertions / deletions | back 91 gene rearrangement that results in gain / loss of a gene(s) and frameshift |
front 92 frameshift mutation | back 92 changes the sequence of codons (triplets) used by the ribosome to make proteins, everything after is affected |
front 93 duplications | back 93 gene rearrangements that result in an extra copy of genes from unequal crossing over or chromosome rearrangement, results in new traits |
front 94 inversion | back 94 changes in orientation of chromosomal regions |
front 95 translocation | back 95 two different chromosomes break and rejoin in a way that causes the DNA sequence or gene to be lost, repeated, or interrupted (can also be one chromosome breaking in 2 places) |
front 96 transposons | back 96 gene segments that can cut / paste themselves throughout the genome |
front 97 conjugation | back 97 swap DNA with other bacterial cells |
front 98 transformation | back 98 uptake of DNA for bacteria |
front 99 transposition | back 99 movement of DNA within and between DNA molecules for bacteria |
front 100 What increases the genetic variation of bacteria? | back 100 conjugation, transformation, transposition |
front 101 viruses | back 101 nonliving agents capable of infecting cells, use host cell machinery to replicate, made of protein shell (capsid) and genetic material |
front 102 viral genome | back 102 carries genes for building the capsid and anything else the virus needs that the host cannot provide |
front 103 How can viral genomes mix? | back 103 if two viruses infect the same cell |
front 104 lytic cycle | back 104 the virus immediately starts using the host cell's machinery to replicate the genetic material and create more capsid proteins, lyse to release viruses |
front 105 lysogenic cycle | back 105 virus incorporates itself into host genome and remains dormant until it is triggered, can remain dormant for a long time until triggered, means cell can divide with viral DNA |
front 106 prophage | back 106 host cell's genome before phage |
front 107 transduction | back 107 the transfer of DNA between bacterial cells using a lysogenic virus. host DNA is packaged into new viral particles so next infected cell has previous host DNA and viral genome |
front 108 enveloped viruses | back 108 viruses with a lipid envelope, no need to break out of cell but bud out of membrane instead |
front 109 retroviruses | back 109 use enzyme reverse transcriptase to convert their RNA genomes into DNA (e.g. HIV), high mutation rates and no proofreading = hard to treat |
front 110 recombinant DNA | back 110 generated by combining DNA from multiple sources to create a unique DNA molecule not found in nature |
front 111 genetic engineering | back 111 produces new organisms or products by transferring genes between cells |
front 112 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) | back 112 lab technique for making billions of identical gene copies in hours, DNA used for phylogenetic analyses |
front 113 amplification | back 113 the process of making many copies of genes |
front 114 thermocycler | back 114 the machine used that mimics the process of DNA replication |
front 115 transformation in lab | back 115 the process of giving bacteria foreign DNA (e.g. making insulin from bacteria or for gene expression studies) |
front 116 gel electrophoresis | back 116 separates DNA fragments by weight and charge |
front 117 restriction enzymes | back 117 create a molecular fingerprint by cutting in specific, personally unique patterns |
front 118 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) | back 118 the unique restriction fragments of individuals |
front 119 DNA fingerprinting | back 119 when RFLPs from DNA at the crime scene are compared to the suspects' RFLP |
front 120 DNA sequencing | back 120 used to determine the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecules |
front 121 CRISPR Cas-9 | back 121 clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, molecular scissors that cut and paste |
front 122 Who discovered CRISPR-Cas 9? | back 122 Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier, 2 female scientists |
front 123 uses for CRISPR Cas-9 | back 123 cure lifelong, inherited diseases; don't use on gametes or early development embryos; only stem cells |
front 124 Cas-9 | back 124 protein, DNA cutting enzyme, has RNA guide inside with the necessary sequence, surrounded by enzyme |
front 125 How accessible is CRISPR? | back 125 very, any Joe Schmoe can make in 3 weeks |
front 126 supernatant | back 126 lighter components of a solution, in the liquid after centrifuging |
front 127 lysozymes | back 127 naturally occurring enzyme used to break open cells |
front 128 freeze cells overnight | back 128 water expands, leads to breakage |
front 129 fluorescent protein tail | back 129 negatively charged his amino acids |
front 130 elution buffer (imidazole) | back 130 breaks bond between nickel bead and fluorescent proteins by making nickel beads more negative and the R groups of the his more positive |