Parathyroid Hormone and Calcium Levels – Parathyroid hormone and its effect on
Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption, increasing kidney reabsorption of calcium, and activating vitamin D.
Arteries vs. Veins:
- Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart; high pressure, thick walls.
- Veins: Carry blood toward the heart; low pressure, thinner walls, valves present.
Aldosterone Regulation – Factors influencing aldosterone release.
Regulated mainly by blood potassium levels, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), and blood pressure.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone – Type of hormone (FSH).
A tropic, glycoprotein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary.
Eicosanoids-
Synthesized from arachidonic acid, a fatty acid derived from membrane phospholipids.
Hormones Requiring Carrier Proteins:
Steroid hormones and thyroid hormones require carrier proteins in blood.
Action of Lipid-Soluble Hormone
Diffuse through cell membranes, bind to intracellular receptors, and alter gene transcription
Down-Regulation – Definition and explanation of down-regulation in hormone receptor
A decrease in the number of hormone receptors on target cells due to prolonged exposure to high hormone levels.
Glucagon and Insulin
- Insulin: Lowers blood glucose.
- Glucagon: Raises blood glucose. They act antagonistically.
Master Control of the Endocrine System:
Hypothalamus
Tropic Hormones:
- Hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands (e.g., TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH).
Excessive Growth Hormone – Effects of excessive growth hormone in adults.
Causes acromegaly.
Thyroid Disease Diagnosis – Diagnosis based on symptoms of hyperthyroidism.
Symptoms include weight loss, heat intolerance, tachycardia, nervousness, and exophthalmos.
Cortisol and Glucose Uptake – Effect of cortisol on glucose uptake and protein
Decreases glucose uptake by cells and increases protein breakdown (catabolism).
Pineal Gland Secretion – Hormone secreted by the pineal gland.
Melatonin
Iodine Deficiency and Goiter
Low iodine reduces thyroid hormone production, causing increased TSH and thyroid enlargement (goiter).
Negative Feedback of Thyroid Hormone:
High thyroid hormone levels inhibit TSH release from the pituitary.
Blood and Protection – Function of blood in immune defense.
Blood protects through immune defense using leukocytes and antibodies.
Blood Temperature – Temperature of blood compared to body temperature.
Slightly higher than normal body temperature (~38°C / 100.4°F).
Blood pH and Proteins:
Abnormal pH causes blood proteins to denature, impairing function.
Classification of Blood:
A connective tissue.
Most Numerous Blood Cells – Identification of the most numerous formed elements in
Erythrocytes (red blood cells).
Smallest Plasma Proteins – Plasma proteins categorized by size.
Albumins
Blood Doping Effects:
Increases oxygen-carrying capacity but also increases blood viscosity, raising clot risk.
Hematopoiesis
Formation of blood cells in red bone marrow.
Oxygen Binding in Hemoglobin – Oxygen binding capacity of hemoglobin.
Each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4 oxygen molecules.
Lifespan of Erythrocytes:
Approximately 120 days.
Type O Blood:
No A or B antigens; both anti-A and anti-B antibodies present.
Rh Negative Blood
Lacks the Rh (D) antigen.
Main Function of Leukocytes:
Defense against pathogens
Granulocytes – Identification of granulocytes among leukocytes.
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
Macrophage Formation – Identification of the leukocyte type that becomes a
Monocytes differentiate into macrophages.
Most Numerous Leukocytes – The most abundant leukocytes in blood.
Neutrophils
First Phase of Hemostasis – The first step in the hemostasis process.
Vascular spasm.
Clotting Pathways Duration – Intrinsic vs extrinsic clotting pathway speed
- Extrinsic: Faster
- Intrinsic: Slower
Fibrinolysis – Process and protein involved in fibrinolysis.
Breakdown of clots using plasmin.
Pulmonary Trunk – Identification of the pulmonary trunk as an artery.
An artery carrying blood away from the heart to the lungs.
Oxygenated Blood Return to Heart – Blood vessels carrying oxygenated blood from
Pulmonary veins.
Auricles of the Heart – Identification of the auricle visible from an anterior view.
Right auricle is visible from the anterior view.
Papillary Muscles Function – Function of papillary muscles and their connection to AV
Anchor AV valves via chordae tendineae to prevent valve prolapse.
Cardiac Muscle Contacts – Cell-to-cell contacts in cardiac muscle fibers.
Intercalated discs (desmosomes and gap junctions).
Valve Preventing Backflow – Valve preventing backflow into the left ventricle.
Aortic semilunar valve.
Impulse Transmission in the Heart – Sequence of events in heart impulse conduction.
SA node → AV node → AV bundle → bundle branches → Purkinje fibers.
Plateau Phase in Cardiac Action Potential – Explanation of the plateau phase in
Caused by calcium ion influx, prolonging contraction.
ECG T Wave – What the T wave represents in an ECG.
Represents ventricular repolarization.
Chamber Contraction in a Cardiac Cycle – Number of chambers contracting during a cardiac cycle
Two chambers contract at a time (atria or ventricles).
Cardiac Output – Definition and formula for cardiac output.
CO = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume
Parasympathetic Innervation – Cranial nerve responsible for parasympathetic
Vagus nerve (Cranial Nerve X).
Coronary Vessels and Heart Contraction – When coronary vessels are open (heart contracting vs. relaxed).
Most open when the heart is relaxed (diastole).
Red Blood Cell Volume – Percentage of red blood cells in the blood.
Hematocrit ≈ 45%.
Molecule Carrying Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide – Molecule that carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide in erythrocytes.
Hemoglobin
Type A Blood – Characteristics of type A blood.
antigens present; anti-B antibodies in plasma.
Leukocyte Deficiency Disorder – Disorder caused by a deficiency of leukocytes.
Leukopenia.
Erythropoietin Production – Where erythropoietin is produced and its effect.
Produced by the kidneys; stimulates RBC production.
Heart's Conical End – The inferior conical end of the heart
Apex of the heart.