Eicosanoids-

Synthesized from arachidonic acid, a fatty acid derived from membrane phospholipids.

Hormones Requiring Carrier Proteins:

Steroid hormones and thyroid hormones require carrier proteins in blood.

Action of Lipid-Soluble Hormone

Diffuse through cell membranes, bind to intracellular receptors, and alter gene transcription

Down-Regulation – Definition and explanation of down-regulation in hormone receptor

A decrease in the number of hormone receptors on target cells due to prolonged exposure to high hormone levels.

Glucagon and Insulin

• Insulin: Lowers blood glucose.
• Glucagon: Raises blood glucose. They act antagonistically.

Master Control of the Endocrine System:

Hypothalamus

Tropic Hormones:

• Hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands (e.g., TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH).

Excessive Growth Hormone – Effects of excessive growth hormone in adults.

Causes acromegaly.

Thyroid Disease Diagnosis – Diagnosis based on symptoms of hyperthyroidism.

Symptoms include weight loss, heat intolerance, tachycardia, nervousness, and exophthalmos.

Cortisol and Glucose Uptake – Effect of cortisol on glucose uptake and protein

Decreases glucose uptake by cells and increases protein breakdown (catabolism).

Pineal Gland Secretion – Hormone secreted by the pineal gland.

Melatonin

Iodine Deficiency and Goiter

Low iodine reduces thyroid hormone production, causing increased TSH and thyroid enlargement (goiter).

Negative Feedback of Thyroid Hormone:

High thyroid hormone levels inhibit TSH release from the pituitary.

Blood and Protection – Function of blood in immune defense.

Blood protects through immune defense using leukocytes and antibodies.

Blood Temperature – Temperature of blood compared to body temperature.

Slightly higher than normal body temperature (~38°C / 100.4°F).

Blood pH and Proteins:

Abnormal pH causes blood proteins to denature, impairing function.

Classification of Blood:

A connective tissue.

Most Numerous Blood Cells – Identification of the most numerous formed elements in

Erythrocytes (red blood cells).

Smallest Plasma Proteins – Plasma proteins categorized by size.

Albumins

Blood Doping Effects:

Increases oxygen-carrying capacity but also increases blood viscosity, raising clot risk.

Hematopoiesis

Formation of blood cells in red bone marrow.

Oxygen Binding in Hemoglobin – Oxygen binding capacity of hemoglobin.

Each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4 oxygen molecules.

Lifespan of Erythrocytes:

Approximately 120 days.

Type O Blood:

No A or B antigens; both anti-A and anti-B antibodies present.

Rh Negative Blood

Lacks the Rh (D) antigen.

Main Function of Leukocytes:

Defense against pathogens

Granulocytes – Identification of granulocytes among leukocytes.

Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

Macrophage Formation – Identification of the leukocyte type that becomes a

Monocytes differentiate into macrophages.

Most Numerous Leukocytes – The most abundant leukocytes in blood.

Neutrophils

First Phase of Hemostasis – The first step in the hemostasis process.

Vascular spasm.

Clotting Pathways Duration – Intrinsic vs extrinsic clotting pathway speed

• Extrinsic: Faster
• Intrinsic: Slower

Fibrinolysis – Process and protein involved in fibrinolysis.

Breakdown of clots using plasmin.

Pulmonary Trunk – Identification of the pulmonary trunk as an artery.

An artery carrying blood away from the heart to the lungs.

Oxygenated Blood Return to Heart – Blood vessels carrying oxygenated blood from

Pulmonary veins.

Auricles of the Heart – Identification of the auricle visible from an anterior view.

Right auricle is visible from the anterior view.

Papillary Muscles Function – Function of papillary muscles and their connection to AV

Anchor AV valves via chordae tendineae to prevent valve prolapse.

Cardiac Muscle Contacts – Cell-to-cell contacts in cardiac muscle fibers.

Intercalated discs (desmosomes and gap junctions).

Valve Preventing Backflow – Valve preventing backflow into the left ventricle.

Aortic semilunar valve.

Impulse Transmission in the Heart – Sequence of events in heart impulse conduction.

SA node → AV node → AV bundle → bundle branches → Purkinje fibers.

Plateau Phase in Cardiac Action Potential – Explanation of the plateau phase in

Caused by calcium ion influx, prolonging contraction.

ECG T Wave – What the T wave represents in an ECG.

Represents ventricular repolarization.

Chamber Contraction in a Cardiac Cycle – Number of chambers contracting during a cardiac cycle

Two chambers contract at a time (atria or ventricles).

Cardiac Output – Definition and formula for cardiac output.

CO = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume

Parasympathetic Innervation – Cranial nerve responsible for parasympathetic

Vagus nerve (Cranial Nerve X).

Coronary Vessels and Heart Contraction – When coronary vessels are open (heart contracting vs. relaxed).

Most open when the heart is relaxed (diastole).

Red Blood Cell Volume – Percentage of red blood cells in the blood.

Hematocrit ≈ 45%.

Molecule Carrying Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide – Molecule that carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide in erythrocytes.

Hemoglobin

Type A Blood – Characteristics of type A blood.

antigens present; anti-B antibodies in plasma.

Leukocyte Deficiency Disorder – Disorder caused by a deficiency of leukocytes.

Leukopenia.

Erythropoietin Production – Where erythropoietin is produced and its effect.

Produced by the kidneys; stimulates RBC production.

Heart's Conical End – The inferior conical end of the heart

Apex of the heart.