What do enzymes do?
Speed up reactions/ catalyze them
How does temperature affect enzymes?
If temp is too low, there is not enough kinetic energy, if temp is too high, enzymes denature, Rate of reaction increases as temp increases to a maximum then declines when temperature continues to increase
Enzymes
Proteins that speed up or catalyze a reaction
Active site
Substrate binding site
Denaturation
Breakdown of secondary and tertiary structures of protein
Competitive inhibitor
Binds and competes for active site on enzyme
Non-Competitive Inhibitor
Impede activity without binding to active site (Changes active site shape)
Ea (activation energy)
energy needed to make a reaction occur, catalysts provide this to reactions
Cofactors
Usually metallic ions that assist enzymes
Coenzymes
Organic cofactors
Catecholase
found in fruits and veggies (potatoes), facilitates reaction between catechol and oxygen
What is catechol converted to?
Benzoquinone
How does pH affect enzymes?
Each enzyme has an optimal pH, if too high or too low enzymes denature
How does enzyme concentration affect enzymes?
More enzymes means faster product, with more enzymes means more active sites, more enzymes raise saturation level
How does substrate concentration affect enzymes?
When raised the velocity of the reaction will increase until it reaches saturation point (maximum) then remain constant
Cellular Respiration Formula
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
Heterotrophs
Do not use photosynthesis but obtain food from outside sources
Facultative anaerobes
can live in aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Ex: yeast)
Glycolysis: aerobic or anaerobic?
Anaerobic
Where does glycolysis happen?
In cytoplasm
What does glycolysis produce?
4 ATP 2 pyruvate
Dehydrogenase
Transfers H+ from substrate to coenzyme
What coenzymes does glycolysis produce?
2 NADH
Where does fermentation happen?
Cytoplasm
What is fermentation? What are the types?
Metabolizes pyruvate when O2 is unavailable, produces 2 ATP, yields alcohol and CO2 or lactic acid
Why is there iodoform (flaky yellow precipitate) when yeast, NaOH, and lugols are mixed?
Iodoform forms from interaction with the alcohol because fermentation happened
What is the transition reaction?
Happens in mitochondria, converts pyruvate to CoA, makes CO2 as a by-product
Where does the Kreb Cycle happen?
Matrix of mitochondria
Krebs: aerobic or anaerobic?
Aerobic
what are Coenzymes of Krebs?
NADH and FADH2
what are Products of Krebs?
1 CoA = 1 ATP, 2 CO2, 3 NADH, & 1 NADPH doubled for complete glucose
What is used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP?
Electron transport chain, ATP synthase uses H+ gradient
Where is the electron transport chain?
Inner membrane mitochondria
Cristae
Inner folds of mitochondria
H2O
By-product of electron transport chain
O2
Final electron acceptor of electron transport chain
Photosynthesis equation
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
What does photosynthesis do?
Captures sun light energy and stores it in chemical bonds of carbohydrates
Stomata
Underside of leaves, closes in intense heat
Xylum
Water transport system (roots to stem)
Where does light reaction happen?
Thylakoids
Granum
Stack of thylakoids
Stroma
Outside of granum
Chlorophyll A
Main chlorophyll pigment
Chlorophyll B
More O's in ring structure than other chlorophyll pigment
Carotenoids
Accessory pigments for excess light
Xanthophyll
Pigment within vacuoles and do not perform photosynthesis
Light-Dependent Reaction Equation
H2O + ADP + Pi + NADP+ --> ½ O2 + ATP + NADPH + H+
Which photosystem phosphorylates ADP?
Photosystem I
What splits H2O in photosynthesis?
light
Where do the things from noncyclic photosystem II go?
O2 into atmosphere, H+ to electron transport, electrons to photosystem I
What wavelength is violet?
400nm
What wavelength is blue?
450nm
What wavelength is green?
500nm
What wavelength is yellow?
550nm
What wavelength is orange?
600nm
What wavelength is red?
700nm
What wavelength is gamma?
< 1nm
What wavelength is X-ray?
<1-100nm
What wavelength is UV?
100-350nm
What wavelength is infrared?
750- <1 millimeter
What wavelength are microwave waves?
<1 millimeter- 1 meter
What wavelength are radio waves?
Thousands of meters
Active spectrum
relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of light (colors) for light- dependent processes
Which pigment is heaviest?
Chlorophyll B
Which pigment is lightest?
Carotenoids
Absorption spectrum
absorbance vs wavelength graphs
Dark reaction equation
6 CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ -->C6H12O6 + 18 ADP + 18 Pi + 12 NADP+ + 6 H2O
What happens in dark reaction?
Energy is stored by carbon dioxide fixation in carbohydrates
What is the result of mitosis?
Two identical daughter cells
Karyokinesis
nucleus division
cytokinesis
cytoplasm division
Chromatin
loosely packaged, not condensed DNA
Chromatid
condensed DNA
Centromeres
Waist of chromosome where sister chromatids attach
When does replication happen?
S phase
What happens in G2?
Cells are preparing to divide
What percent of a cells life is interphase?
90%
what are the Three phases of interphase?
G1, G2, S
What is the "restriction phase"?
G1
G0
Non dividing phase
Cell cycle
Describes life history of actively dividing cells
What happens in prophase?
Chromatin condenses, Centrioles go to poles and produce spindle fibers
Centrosome
2 centrioles
What does microtubules form from?
tubulin
Where do the spindle fibers attach?
Kinetochore
What happens in metaphase?
Sister chromatids line up at metaphase plate, Attached by spindle fibers to opposite centrioles
What happens in anaphase?
Sister chromatids separate at centromeres, Spindle fibers shorten at kinetochore end, Separated chromatids are called daughter chromosomes
What happens in telophase?
Spindle apparatus disappears, Nuclei and nucleoli reform, Chromosomes decondense and reform diffuse chromatin, 2 product daughter cells are identical, cytokinesis
What is cytokinesis? How does this happen in animals? Plants?
Separation of cytoplasm, cleavage furrow, cell plate
What does a cell do after mitosis?
Return to interphase
What happens to organelles during mitosis?
ER and golgi break down and are rebuilt, Lysosomes/ ribosomes get split between two cells, Mitochondria and chloroplasts are also split between cells
What is meiosis?
The production of sex cells or gametes
Diploid
2n
Haploid
n
Spores
haploid, germinate to form haploid individuals
What is the product of meiosis?
4 daughter cells with 1/2 # of chromosomes than parent cell
Homologous pairs
identical in size and shape
Locus
where genes for a particular trait are found
Allele
2 types of one gene
Homozygous
When alleles are the same genotype (gene content)
Heterozygous
When alleles are different genotypes (gene content)
Phenotype
appearance
Mendel's first law
states that alleles segregate in meiosis, when two haploid gametes combine during fertilization, two alleles are then present in offspring
Mendel's second law
states that alleles of unlinked genes assort independently
What happens in prophase I?
Homologous chromosomes come together and synapse, Tetrad forms (2 chromosomes)
Synaptonemal complex
Helps pair the homologs
Where does crossing over happen?
Chiasmata
What do centrioles do during Prophase I?
Centrioles replicated prior to division and move to poles
When do spindle fibers appear?
Prophase I
What happens in metaphase I?
Homologs line up at metaphase plate
What happens in anaphase I?
Homologs separate, Pulled to opposite sides by kinetochore microtubules
What happens in Telophase I?
Another centriole division, Cytokinesis, Produces 2 cells
What happens in Interphase II?
No replication
What happens in prophase II?
Centrioles to poles
What happens in metaphase II?
Sister chromatids at metaphase plate
What happens in anaphase II?
Sister chromatids loosely associated around centromere region, Sister chromatids are separated
What happens in telophase II?
Nuclear membranes form, Cytokinesis, 4 different daughter cells