Christopher Columbus
An Italian explorer whose four voyages across the Atlantic (starting in 1492) marked the beginning of European colonization of the Americas.
Hernán Cortés
A Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in Mexico (1521).
Christian Humanism
An intellectual movement during the Northern Renaissance that sought to reform Christianity by focusing on the classical sources of the Bible and the early Church Fathers, emphasizing piety and ethical living (e.g., Erasmus).
Martin Luther
A German theologian whose challenge to the Catholic Church (starting with the 95 Theses in 1517) sparked the Protestant Reformation. He championed the doctrines of sola scriptura and sola fide.
Charles V
The powerful Holy Roman Emperor (reigned 1519–1556) who ruled over vast territories in Europe and the Americas, constantly clashing with France and struggling to contain the spread of Lutheranism.
John Calvin
A French theologian and major figure of the second generation of the Reformation. His teachings led to the development of Calvinism, emphasizing God's sovereignty and the doctrine of predestination.
Predestination
A core theological concept, particularly in Calvinism, asserting that God has eternally decreed who will be saved (the "elect") and who will be damned.
Henry VIII
The King of England (reigned 1509–1547) who initiated the English Reformation by separating the Church of England from papal authority, largely to secure a male heir.
Anabaptists
A radical group within the Reformation that rejected infant baptism, believing only adult believers should be baptized. They were often persecuted by both Catholics and other Protestants.
Council of Trent
An ecumenical council of the Catholic Church (1545–1563) that reaffirmed traditional Catholic doctrine and initiated significant reforms in the face of the Protestant challenge, marking the start of the Counter-Reformation.
Jesuits
Officially the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1540). They became the spearhead of the Counter-Reformation through education, missionary work, and advising monarchs.
Suleiman the Magnificent
The longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (reigned 1520–1566). His reign marked the peak of Ottoman political, military, and cultural power.
Peace of Augsburg
A 1555 treaty signed by Charles V that formally ended the conflict between Lutherans and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, establishing the principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose realm, his religion").