Innocent III
Arguably the most powerful Pope in history (reigned 1198–1216), who exerted vast influence over European affairs, called the Fourth Lateran Council, and launched the Fourth Crusade.
Fourth Lateran Council
A pivotal ecumenical council (1215) called by Pope Innocent III that reformed the Church, defined transubstantiation, and mandated annual confession and communion for all Catholics.
Blood Libel
A false and defamatory accusation that, during Jewish Passover, Jews ritually murdered Christian children to use their blood for unleavened bread; a recurrent catalyst for anti-Jewish persecution.
Scholasticism
The dominant medieval method of teaching and philosophy based on the logic of Aristotle and the Church Fathers, aiming to reconcile Christian theology with classical reason.
Frederick II
The powerful and controversial Holy Roman Emperor (reigned 1220–1250) known as Stupor Mundi ("Wonder of the World"); he had frequent conflicts with the Papacy.
Statute in Favor of the Princes
A 1232 legal decree issued by Frederick II that granted substantial new rights and sovereignty to the German princes, significantly weakening the central imperial power.
Louis IX
The pious and effective King of France (reigned 1226–1270), later canonized as Saint Louis. His reign is seen as the peak of medieval French power and piety.
Cortes
The term used for the legislative or parliamentary assemblies in the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula (e.g., Castile, Aragon, Portugal).
Boniface VIII
The Pope (reigned 1294–1303) who fiercely asserted Papal supremacy over secular rulers (e.g., in the bull Unam Sanctam) and was arrested by agents of King Philip IV of France.
Avignon Papacy
The period (1309–1376) when seven successive Popes resided in Avignon (modern France) rather than Rome, largely due to French political influence, leading to a loss of prestige for the Papacy.
Popolo
A term meaning "the people" in Italian, referring to the disenfranchised common people (especially merchants, artisans, and guild members) in Italian city-states who organized to challenge the rule of the older aristocracy.
Mongols
A nomadic group originating in Central Asia who, under Chinggis Khan, established the largest contiguous land empire in history during the 13th century.
Golden Horde
One of the four main Mongol successor states (Khanates) that ruled over much of Eastern Europe, including Russia, from the 13th to the 15th centuries.
Great Famine
A severe period of widespread starvation and disease (1315–1317) caused by heavy rain and crop failures across Northern Europe, marking the beginning of the Late Medieval Crisis.