front 1 Innocent III | back 1 Arguably the most powerful Pope in history (reigned 1198–1216), who exerted vast influence over European affairs, called the Fourth Lateran Council, and launched the Fourth Crusade. |
front 2 Fourth Lateran Council | back 2 A pivotal ecumenical council (1215) called by Pope Innocent III that reformed the Church, defined transubstantiation, and mandated annual confession and communion for all Catholics. |
front 3 Blood Libel | back 3 A false and defamatory accusation that, during Jewish Passover, Jews ritually murdered Christian children to use their blood for unleavened bread; a recurrent catalyst for anti-Jewish persecution. |
front 4 Scholasticism | back 4 The dominant medieval method of teaching and philosophy based on the logic of Aristotle and the Church Fathers, aiming to reconcile Christian theology with classical reason. |
front 5 Frederick II | back 5 The powerful and controversial Holy Roman Emperor (reigned 1220–1250) known as Stupor Mundi ("Wonder of the World"); he had frequent conflicts with the Papacy. |
front 6 Statute in Favor of the Princes | back 6 A 1232 legal decree issued by Frederick II that granted substantial new rights and sovereignty to the German princes, significantly weakening the central imperial power. |
front 7 Louis IX | back 7 The pious and effective King of France (reigned 1226–1270), later canonized as Saint Louis. His reign is seen as the peak of medieval French power and piety. |
front 8 Cortes | back 8 The term used for the legislative or parliamentary assemblies in the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula (e.g., Castile, Aragon, Portugal). |
front 9 Boniface VIII | back 9 The Pope (reigned 1294–1303) who fiercely asserted Papal supremacy over secular rulers (e.g., in the bull Unam Sanctam) and was arrested by agents of King Philip IV of France. |
front 10 Avignon Papacy | back 10 The period (1309–1376) when seven successive Popes resided in Avignon (modern France) rather than Rome, largely due to French political influence, leading to a loss of prestige for the Papacy. |
front 11 Popolo | back 11 A term meaning "the people" in Italian, referring to the disenfranchised common people (especially merchants, artisans, and guild members) in Italian city-states who organized to challenge the rule of the older aristocracy. |
front 12 Mongols | back 12 A nomadic group originating in Central Asia who, under Chinggis Khan, established the largest contiguous land empire in history during the 13th century. |
front 13 Golden Horde | back 13 One of the four main Mongol successor states (Khanates) that ruled over much of Eastern Europe, including Russia, from the 13th to the 15th centuries. |
front 14 Great Famine | back 14 A severe period of widespread starvation and disease (1315–1317) caused by heavy rain and crop failures across Northern Europe, marking the beginning of the Late Medieval Crisis. |