regulates calcium levels in the body
calcitonin and PTH
calcitonin is produced in _____ gland
thyroid gland
PTH is produced in the ______ gland
parathyroid gland
hormone that is more important for regulating calcium levels
parathyroid hormone
what stimulates PTH release from the parathyroid gland
low serum calcium
what stimulates calcitonin release from the thyroid gland
high serum calcium
hormone that raises blood calcium levels
PTH
hormone that lowers blood calcium levels
calcitonin
pancreas produces 2 hormones
insulin and glucagon
what does insulin produce
beta cells
what does glucagon produce
alpha cells
what makes insulin leave the pancreas
high glucose
what makes glucagon leave the pancreas
low glucose
what does insulin do to blood glucose levels
lowers blood glucose levels
what does glucagon do to blood glucose levels
raises blood glucose levels
what does the pancreas do
produce hormones for the endocrine system and digestive system
exocrine secretion of the pancreas
enzymes and bicarbonate
endocrine and exocrine organs
gonads and pancreas
gland that produces the body’s major metabolic hormone
thyroid hormone
where is the thyroid located
anterior neck
what gland produces the steroid hormone aldosterone
adrenal cortex
which organ does aldosterone work at
in the collecting ducts of the kidney
what does aldosterone do to blood pressure
raises it
what does aldosterone do to blood potassium levels
decreases blood potassium
what system causes the release of aldosterone
renin-angiotensin
which part is renin released from the nephron
the granular cells of the nephron
order of decreased blood pressure
renin —> angiostensin 1 —>angiotensin 2 —> aldosterone
hormone released by adrenal medulla
epinephrine
how are the adrenal medulla and the sympathetic nervous system similar
they both have the same effect
hormone in charge of the body’s water balance and stimulates water conservation in the kidneys.
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
what does alcohol act as
a diuretic
why does alcohol cause lots of urination
alcohol inhibits the release of ADH
area of the brain that plays a major role in the body’s water balance
hypothalamus
rise in plasma osmolality is a signal to
drink water
if ADH increases what happens to the permeability of the collecting duct/tubule to water
permeability increases
where is the atrial natriuretic peptide hormone located
the heart
promotes salt and water loss in nephrons and lowers blood pressure
ANP
ion level that is close to body’s water volume
sodium
hormone released towards the end of pregnancy and simulates milk production
prolactin
hormone stimulating milk release from the breast and uterine contractions
oxytocin
where is oxytocin released when breast feeding and stimulation of the nipples
posterior pituitary
anterior pituitary gonadtropins
FSH and LH
hormone controlling the release of anterior pituitary gonadotropins
GnRH
hormone MOST associated with ovulation
LH
hormone that keeps the corpus luteum alive
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
hormone MOST associated with follicle development in females
FSH
endometrium grows under ______ influence
estrogen
where is the heart located
2nd rib and 5th intercostal space
two superior receiving heart chambers are known as the _____
atria
two inferior pumping (discharging) chambers of the heart are called ____
ventricles
what carries oxygenated blood back to the heart
pulmonary veins
where do pulmonary veins empty blood to
the Left Atrium
what chamber is the entrance of the coronary sinus and the pacemaker (SA node) of the heart
the Right Atrium
what carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart
pulmonary arteries
when is the mitral valve normally closed
when the ventricle is in systole
when the ventricles are in systole, what happens to the tricuspid valve
it closes
during VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE who receives blood
the Aorta and Pulmonary Trunk
which ventricular wall of the heart is thicker
the left side
why is the left ventricular side thicker than the right side of the heart
the Left Side pumps blood with greater pressure to the entire body
caused by P Wave
atrial depolarization
caused by QRS wave
ventricular depolarization
caused by T wave
ventricular repolarization
valve with 3 flaps (cusps) and chordae tendineae
tricuspid valve
the tricuspid valve is also called ____
right AV valve
valve with 2 flaps (cusps) and chordae tendineae
mitral valve
valve that prevents back flow into left ventricle
aortic valve
valve preventing back flow into right ventricle
pulmonary valve
valve that prevents back flow into the right atrium
tricuspid valve
valve preventing back flow into the left atrium
mitral valve
valve located between the Left Ventricle and the Aorta
aortic valve
what valve is between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk
pulmonary valve
how is the “lub-dup” heart sounds produced
“lub” is atrioventricular valve closing and “dup” is semilunar valve closing
first heart sound heard at the beginning of the cardiac cycle
Isovolumetric contraction
second heart sound at the beginning of the cardiac cycle
isovolumetric relaxation
what structure in the heart is responsible for setting the heart’s pace
sinoatrial node (in right atrium)
what effect vagal nerve has on the pacemaker of the heart
slows down heart
what effect does epinephrine have on the pacemaker of the heart
speeds up the heart
what system in the heart is the vagus nerve part of
parasympathetic nervous system
what system in the heart is the epinephrine part of
sympathetic nervous system
total amount of blood pumped out of each ventricle with each beat
stroke volume (avg. 70 ml/bt)
total amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute [(HR x SV) divide by 1000 for Liters]
cardiac output (5 L/min)
what baroreceptors measure
change in blood pressure
where are baroreceptors located
aortic arch and carotid sinuses
amount of systolic subtracted by diastolic
pulse pressure
device used to measure blood pressure
sphygmomanometer
formula for MAP
diastolic + 1/3 x pulse pressure
what long-term mechanisms control blood pressure
regulating blood volume
what forces fluid out of blood into the tissues
capillary hydrostatic pressure
what helps bring back fluid into the blood from the tissues
colloid osmotic pressure
substance largely responsible for osmotic pressure and not filtered through the renal corpuscle
albumin
what organ makes albumin
liver
forces regulating fluid movements between cells and body compartments
hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressure
why do substances leave the bloodstream at the atrial end of the capillaries
blood pressure is higher at the atrial end of the capillary
what blood is going from the small intestine to the liver
TYK
the hepatic portal system delivers blood from the digestive organs to the _____
liver
which electrolyte most closely associated with total body water
sodium
where is most Na+ found in the body
extracellular spaces
where is most K+ found in the body
intracellular spaces
correct statement of blood flow
blood flows through the entire system equivalent to cardiac output
how is most oxygen carried throughout the body
hemoglobins inside RBC
how many molecules of oxygen does each hemoglobin molecule carry
4
how long do red blood cells live for
100-120 days
what organ is the graveyard for old RBC
spleen
common ration of hematocrit :hemoglobin
3:1
cell that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
erythrocyte
hormone that increases red blood cell production
erythropoietin (EPO)
where is erythropoietin made and regulates its production
the kidney
where does erythropoietin work
in the bone marrow
average hemoglobin levels for male
14-18
normal hemoglobin levels for female
12-16
normal hematocrit levels for males
42-52%
normal hematocrit levels for females
37-47%
most abundant plasma protein
albumin
biggest component of plasma
water (90%)
what makes leukocytes true cells
they’re nucleated
what is it called when WBC slips in and out of blood vessels
diapedesis
type of leukocyte containing histamine and heparin
basophils
type of leukocyte that increases with parasite infections
eosinophils
neutrophils and eosinophils are phagocytes
true
monocytes and macrophages phagocytes
true
natural killer cells are phagocytes
false
lymphocytes are B and T cells
true
B and T cells are phagocytes
false
type of leukocytes that increases with bacterial infection
neutrophils
what are the granulocytes
basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils
what are the granulocytes
lymphocytes and monocytes
normal WBC count
4,500- 11,000 cells
which formed element sticks to damaged walls of blood vessels when there is a tear
platelets
birthplace of platelets
red bone marrow
structural framework of a clot
fibrin (mesh looking)
process where bleeding is stopped
hemostasis
steps of hemostasis
vascular spasm —> platelet plug —> coagulation
2 coagulation pathways
intrinsic and extrinsic
coagulation pathway initiated by platelets
intrinsic
coagulation pathway initiated by tissue damage
extrinsic
what antigens does blood type AB have
A and B antigens on RBC
antigens of people with blood type O
no antigens
what is erythroblastosis fetalis
mom has Rh- and baby has Rh +
what are mature lymphocytes recognize and bind to specific antigens
immunocompetence
unresponsive of lymphocytes to own body cells (antigens)
self tolerance
areas of the body with superficial lymph nodes
cervical, axillary, and inguinal
duct that receives lymph from lower body and upper left body
thoracic duct
duct receiving lymph form upper right body
right lymphatic duct
which veins does the lymphatic drain into
subclavian veins (all lymph fluid flows to the heart)
highly specialized lymph capillaries in the intestinal mucosa
lacteals
what is MALT in the intestines
peyer’s patches
distal portion of small intestine with lymphoid follicles
Peyer’s patch
which are part of the 1st line of defense
mucous membrane, skin, and gastric juice
which are part of the 2nd line of defense
phagocytes, inflammation, NK cells, fever, and complement of interferon
which are part of the 3rd line of defense
B and T cells
what are innate defenses
surface barriers and internal defenses (1st and 2nd lines)
what are adaptive defenses
humoral and cellular immunity (3rd line)
cell that kills cancer and virus-infected cells
natural killer cells (NK cells)
4 signs of inflammation
redness, heat, swelling, and pain
largest lymphoid organ who also has red and white pulp
spleen
cell that makes antibodies
plasma checks
what lymphocytes help with humoral immunity
B lymphocytes
how do B lymphocytes produce antibodies
they become plasma cells
where do B cells mature
the bone marrow
which lymphocytes involves cellular immunity or cell-mediated immunity
T lymphocytes
what organ do T cells mature
thymus
antibody released into the blood during immune response
IgM
antibody passed through the placenta protecting the fetus
IgG
antibody secreted into internal and external body surfaces
IgA
antibody attached to the surface of B cells
IgD
antibodies released during allergic reactions
IgE
organ important to the development of the immune system
thymus
what cell do T cells require and are critical for cellular immunity
antigen-presenting cells
what are antigen-presenting cells
dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells
what do CD8 cells become
cytotoxic T cells
what do CD4 cells become
helper T cells
class 1 MHC proteins trigger/ binds to what cell
CD8 T cells
class 2 MHC proteins bind to what cells
CD4 T cells
class 1 MHC proteins are not found on RBCs
true
what class of MHC protein changes body cells with infections
class 1
what class of MHC proteins are found on professional antigen-presenting cells
class 2
3 parts of the pharynx
nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx
which part of the pharynx is a passageway for ONLY AIR
nasopharynx
air passing from the pharynx to the trachea has to pass through the ____
larynx
what structure prevents food from entering the airway
epiglottis
what part of the larynx opens between vocal cords
glottis
what are the 2 main cartilages of the larynx
thyroid and cricoid cartilage
“Adam’s apple” is part of what cartilage
thyroid cartilage
an increase in the volume of a container filled with air would decrease the pressure of the container. according to whom
Boyle’s law
what law describes the inverse relationship of pressure and volume of gases
Boyle
during when will air move into the lungs because pressure inside the lungs is LOWER than outside
inspiration
during when will air move out of the lungs because pressure inside the lungs is GREATER than outside
expiration
when are the lungs slightly negative when breathing
when breathing in
when are the lungs slightly positive when breathing
breathing out
what is the cool space between the lungs
mediastinum
what parts of the lungs is site of gas exchange
alveoli
what is inspiration
ACTIVE process of the diaphragm and external intercostals contract
what is expiration
PASSIVE process is quiet breathing and diaphragm relaxes
what is forced exhalation (expiration) and what muscles are being used
ACTIVE process. abdominal muscles and internal intercostals
breathing is also called ______
pulmonary ventilation
what is external respiration
exchange of oxygen and CO2 between alveoli and blood
what is internal respiration
exchange of oxygen and CO2 between blood and tissues
what are dust cells
lung macrophages
what cells make surfactant
type 2 alveoli cells
purpose of the microscopic respiratory membrane
diffusion of gases
in the alveoli, what is Surfactant responsible for and what kind of cell does it produce
fro surface tension and produced by Type 2 cells
terminal bronchioles part of the conducting zone
true
respiratory bronchioles part of the conducting zone
false
what structures carry air to the gas exchange sites
conducting zone
what is the last part of the conducting zone
terminal bronchioles
what is the first part of the respiratory zone
respiratory bronchioles
what structure allows gas exchange
respiratory zone
4 process that make up respiration
pulmonary ventilation —> external respiration —> transportation —> internal repsiraiton
pressure exerted by different gases in a. gas mixture is what ____ of the gas
partial pressure
who’s law said that in a picture of gases, each exerts its own partial pressure. gases will move from high to low pressure
Dalton’s law
what is partial pressure
it determines the direction of respiratory gas movement. IMPORTANT FOR MOVING GAS
what will holding your breath for a length of time do
it will INCREASE alveolar PCO2
what is the most powerful stimulus for breathing in a healthy person
increase of carbon dioxide in the blood
chemical factors stimulating breathing are ...
increase in CO2, lack of O2 in tissues, and decreased pH (acidosis)
how is the majority of carbon dioxide carried in the body
as bicarbonate ions in the blood (70%)
what kind of digestion is ENZYMATIC breakdown of nutrients
chemical digestion
what kind of digestion is PHYSICAL breakdown of nutrients
mechanical digestion
which organ extends from the pyloric sphincter to ileocecal valve
the small intestine
3 parts of the small intestine are...
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
organ where carbohydrate digestion begins
mouth (amylase)
which organ does protein digestion begin
stomach (pepsin)
organ where fat digestion starts
small intestine (lipase)
what is the function of the liver
to produce bile
where is bile stored
the gallbladder
what process has bile breaking down large fat globules into smaller ones
emulsification
what stimulates the release of bile within the liver
emulsification of fats
primary pigment of bile
bilirubin
after eating _____ food, bile is released
fatty
why are chief cells also called peptic cells
they make pepsinogen
which cell makes hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor
parietal cells
what is the function of stomach acid
denature proteins
which substance produced by the stomach is important to life
intrinsic factor
which part of the alimentary canal does most digestion and absorption occur
small intestine
which substance released by the pancreas helps neutralize chyme from the stomach
bicarnbonate
what does bicarbonate in the pancreatic juice do
buffers chyme coming from the stomach
which is the first part of the large intestine where the appendix attaches to
cecum
protein metabolism is an important function for which organ
liver
where is extra glucose stored in the liver
glycogen
what enzymes reside on the surface of the small intestine’s cells
brush border enzymes
which muscle of defecation reflex is voluntarily controlled
external anal sphincter
within the nephron, the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts are influenced by ______. also called Facultative Reabsorption
hormones
what to macula-dense cells act to sense the NaCl salt levels to filtrate
chemoreceptors
what do granular cells become when blood pressure is coming into the kidney by afferent arteriole
mechanoreceptors
85% of nephrons are _____ nephrons
cortical
15% of nephrons are ______ nephrons
juxtamedullary
internal urethral sphincter is involuntary
true
external urethral sphincter voluntary
true
what process that moves urine down the ureters
peristalsis
what is the outer, lighter region of the kidneys called
cortex
how is water reabsorbed into the renal tubules
osmosis
what structure transports urine from the kidneys to the bladder
ureters
what structure transports urine out of the body
urethra
what part of the nephron functions in reabsorption and secretion
proximal convoluted tubule
which part of the nephron functions more during secretion
distal consulted tubule
which part of the nephron has a descending and ascending portion
loop of Henle
what structure makes up the renal corpuscle
glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule
which part of the nephron filtration becomes more concentrated as it moves down the medulla
descending limb of loop of Henle
a female’s body water accounts for __%
50%
which 2 organs act as physiologic buffers in the body
lungs and kidneys
with respiratory alkalosis, the blood pH is _____ than 7.45
greater
name of the white connective tissue enclosing both the ovaries and testis
tunica albuginea
what is it called when the fertilized egg is buried into the endometrium lining of the uterus
implantation
what receives, retains, and allows the zygote to grow
uterus
where will fertilization of the eggs happen
fallopian tubes
where do sperms gain their ability to swim
the epididymis
how many days is the usual pregnancy (gestation period)
280 days
what hormone prepares the mammary glands to produce milk
progesterone
what cells of the testis produce testosterone
interstitial cells (leading cells)
which nervous system controls the male erection
parasympathetic nervous system
which nervous system controls male ejaculation
sympathetic nervous system
how long is the 1st trimester of pregnancy
1-12 weeks
how long is the 2nd trimester of pregnancy
13-28 weeks
how long is the 3rd trimester of pregnancy
29-40 weeks
what is the last stage of labor called
placental stage
which part of the uterus connects to the vagina
cervix
for a woman with a 30-day cycle, what day is ovulation
day 16
day 5-14 of the menstrual cycle is known as the _____ phase
proliferative phase
will the proliferative phase have a corpus luteum in the ovary
no
what hormone is at its highest during the proliferative phase
estrogen
day 15-28 of the menstrual cycle is known as the ______ phase
secretory phase
what hormone is at its highest during the secretory phase
progesterone
what is the diamond-shaped area between the coccyx, pubic arch, and ischial tuberosities in the female
perineum
what glands produce a clear mucus that cleans the acidic urine out of the urethra
bulourethral glands
where does spermatogenesis begin
puberty
if males don’t have FSH, what would happen
infertility
accessory ducts of the male reproductive system
urethra, vas deferens, and epididymis
order of sperm following the testes out of the body
seminiferous tubules —> epididymis —> vas deferens —> ejaculatory duct —> prostatic urethra —> membranous urethra —> spongy urethra
the innermost layer of the uterus is a mucosa layer called _____
endometrium
the middle, smooth muscle bulk of the uterus is called the ______
myometrium
where is the “peristalsis”
the GI tract, inside the fallopian tube, and moving sperm along the ductus deferens
average days of the menstrual phase
5 days
if there is egg fertilization, ______ stays alive to create progesterone and estrogen
corpus luteum
a sharp and sudden decline of estrogen and progesterone in the blood causes ______
menstruation