Microbio final Flashcards

- a nitrogen base

- 5 carbon sugar

- phosphate group

adenine and guanine

thymine, cytosine, uracil

a piece of DNA that codes for a PROTEIN

circular, when it is unwound it is up to 1000x its length

active site and allosteric site

jumping genes, the ends have palindromes (can be read in inverted position)

when a cell accepts a virus having bacterial DNA instead of viral DNA

a piece of DNA is inserted into a bacterial cell

(ex. shotgunning)

when bacteria transfer genes through th epillus form the plasmid (a DNA accessory)

- good for genetic engineering

-does not occur often

conjugation, transformation, transduction

bacteria that survive radiation due to its fast repair system

methyl group to guanine, cause it to pair with thymine instead of cytosine

- acvidine derivative

- distorts helix

- partial unwinding of DNA

- from x-rays, UV light, gamma rays

mutation, which changes the codon reading frame from the point of mutation to the final codon

-almost ALWAYS leads to a non-functional protein

- spontaneous or chemically induced

mutation that changes an amino acid producing codon into a STOP CODON, leading to premature termination

mutation that does not affect the protein

-active site

-cofactor

-apoenzyme

clean mRNA; a region in the genome that ends up within an mRNA molecule

junk, segment of DNA or RNA that does not code for proteins

SECTIONS THAT CANNOT PRODUCE mRNA

- they get "cleaned" by spliceosome- molecule of riboenzyme (made of RNA)

nucleus

cytoplasm

the A site products go to the P site, when the P site is full it releases through the E site.

tRNA brings the complementary bases to the A site

mRNA comes from transcription, and binds to the codon on the A site

UAA and UAG, they code for glutamine instead

C,U,G,A correspond to codons for mRNA

64 codons, 20 amino acids

universal language of life

stop codons

( when a protein detaches from a ribosome, the stop codon has been read)

start codon

in protein synthesis in ribosomes

comes from transcription

has about 75-80 nitrogen bases

are loaded with one amino acid

TAKES AMINO ACIDS TO THE RIBOSOME FOR TRANSLATION IN THE A SITE

an organelle made of rRNA and a protein

-rRNA is used for identification

three

process by which genetic information from DNA is written into mRNA by RNA polymerase

The process of converting a sequence of mRNA into a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis

enclosing nucleic acids in nuclear membrane

DNA is spread out through the cell

movement, made of proteins, can rotate 360 degrees

appendages for attachment

sex organ
touches another bacteria and links to the plasmid

little round pieces of DNA, resistant to chemicals.

monotrichous

amphitrichous

lophotrichous

peritrichous

atrichous

amphilopotrichous

it makes them more resistant (hard capsule made up of sugar)

Survive longer (useful for attachment)

- glycocalyx (slime layer or capsule)
- cell wall
- cell membrane

2 different carbohydrates and a bridge of amino acids
which makes peptidoglycan

affect the synthesis of peptidoglycan (stops synthesis of cell wall)

techoic and lipotechoic acid

appears only in gram negative bacteria, 1st to make a person sick

gram negative

gram positive

lack a cell wall, soft

archaea with unusual cell walls

can grow inside human cells
multiplies inside its host
rocky mountain fever
caused by ticks -> vectors

has no cell wall, very small, found in plants, soil, and animals, mycoplasma pneumonia, an antibiotic that will affect protein synthesis

synthesis of cell PRODUCTS; REQUIRES ENERGY

building up (ex. building up of glucose to make glycogen)

Breakdown of LARGER molecules into SMALLER ones; RELEASES energy; pathways of metabolic schemes are generally complex and detailed

Acetyl-CoA

ATP and WATER

pyruvic acid

O2 + organic molecule

Chloroplast take CO2 + H2O ----> glucose + oxygen

when inhibitor BINDS to holoenzyme and CHANGES the shape; making the substrate unable to bind

when amino acids can be used as a SOURCE OF GLUCOSE (glucogenisis) releasing NH4+

when an amino acid and a carbohydrate make another amino acid

when pyruvic acid can be CONVERTED to amino acids by adding NH4+

the MANIPULATION of DNA

CLOSE (ligates or unite) a fragment of DNA to vector DNA

OPEN (cleave or splice) DNA at specific palindromic sequences. fragments can be joined at the sticky ends.

these enzymes are also involved in the inactivation of viral genomes

converts mRNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) devoid of introns

In SARS, first the RNA is converted to DNA in PCR

the use of electrical current through an agarose gel. DNA that is negatively charged will migrate towards the positive end of the pole. This allows fragments to travel based on their molecular weight. The results are compared to a control.

a segment of DNA or RNA of a known sequence that can base-pair with a stretch of DNA that has a complementary sequence.

short, single strands of 6 to 25 nucleotides called oligonucleotides are used as gene probes

Separates fragments of DNA using electrophoresis and identifies them using hybridization

Separates fragments of RNA using electrophoresis and identifies them using hybridization

Separates fragments of PROTEIN using electrophoresis and identifies them using hybridization

determination of actual order and types of bases in a 5' to 3' direction in a segment of DNA. Done with 'automatic sequencing machines' (rate of mistakes: 1 in 1000 bases)

the amplification of fragments of nucleic acids for further analysis, it uses specialized DNA polymerases isolated from thermophilic bacteria (Taq- from Thermus aquaticus)

-Denaturation (@ 94 degrees Celsius)

- priming (annealing) oligonucleotide primers attach at ends of strands to promote replication (@ 50–65 degrees Celsius)

- Extension (@ 72 degrees Celsius) DNAP nucleotides are added to produce 2 complete strands

cancer, tumor in plants

killed worms that ate the nodules that produced nitrogen fixation from plants

- become physically attached to the substrate

- participate in bonding

- do NOT become part of its products

-Not used up by the chemical reaction

-Can function over and over again

Carrier of functional groups (CO2,(NH3+ = amino group NH2), and others)

WORK with APOENZYME to perform necessary alterations in a substrate

REMOVAL of functional groups

SERVE as transient carrier of specific atoms or functional groups during metabolic reactions

an enzyme accessory that can be organic (coenzymes) or inorganic such as (iron, manganese, or zinc ions)

Metals participate in PRECISE functions between the enzyme and the substrate

ENZYMES NEED COFACTORS

ACTIVATE enzymes

Help bring the active site and substrate CLOSE together

Participate DIRECTLY in chemical reaction with the enzyme substrate complex

enzymes that are ALWAYS present and in constant amount of cell regardless the amount of substrate

- are not in constant amount in a cell

-produced only when substrate is present (INDUCIBLE)

-turned off when substrate is absent (REPRESSED)

-occurs when weak bonds of apoenzymes are broken

-distorts the shape of the enzyme

-prevents the substrate from attaching to the active site

A group of enzymes that can remove electrons from one substrate and add them to another

linear, cyclic, branched

other molecules with a structure similar to the normal substrate COMPETE to occupy the enzymes active site.

- discovered by egleston and krebs

-occurs in the CYTOPLASM of PROKARYOTES and in the MITOCHONDRIA in EUKARYOTES

-processes the final 2 acetyl-CoA coming from PYRUVIC ACID obtained from the DEGRADATION of GLUCOSE 6C though GLYCOLYSIS

- cycle has 8 steps, REDUCES 2 FAD and 8 NAD's, releases 2 CO2 and PRODUCES 2 ATP by substrate level phosphoylation

- OXIDATION of GLUCOSE into 2 MOLECULES of PYRUVIC ACID

-occurs in the CYTOPLASM

-most COMMONLY used sequence of reaction for the conversion of GLUCOSE into PYRUVATE

- produced 2 ATP's, 2 NADH's and 2 H2O molecules

-DOES NOT REQUIRE OXYGEN

occurs in the CELL MEMBRANE of PROKARYOTES and in the MITOCHONDRIA of EUKARYOTES

- made of a chain of special redox carriers that recieved electrons from reduced carriers

-Produces about 34 ATPS and 6 H2O MOLECULES

-in aerobic metabolism, oxygen is the FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR and combines with H ions (protons) to form water

- in anaerobic metabolism, other ions may act as the final electron acceptors

- explains the origin and maintenance of electro-potential gradients across a membrane that leads to ATP synthase (oxidative level phosphorylation)

- the energy obtained is used to GENERATE up to 38 ATP

-fermentation

- the conversion of PYRUVIC ACID to ORGANIC ACID or alcohol (or other organic compounds, producing ATP

-organic molecules can serve as FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTORS

- 2 ATP's maximum per glucose molecule

Enzymes that have and additional regulatory site for the attachment of molecules other than the substrate.

Distort the active site so no binding to substrate occurs without denaturation

Minimum energy input necessary for reactants to form products in a chemical reaction

- less if enzyme IS PRESENT

- more if enzyme is ABSENT or low in concentration