front 1 A nucleotide consists of- | back 1 - a nitrogen base - 5 carbon sugar - phosphate group |
front 2 Which nitrogen bases are purines | back 2 adenine and guanine |
front 3 which nitrogen bases are pyrimidines? | back 3 thymine, cytosine, uracil |
front 4 a gene is | back 4 a piece of DNA that codes for a PROTEIN |
front 5 Bacterial DNA appears | back 5 circular, when it is unwound it is up to 1000x its length |
front 6 an enzyme has two sites | back 6 active site and allosteric site |
front 7 Transposons are | back 7 jumping genes, the ends have palindromes (can be read in inverted position) |
front 8 Transduction is | back 8 when a cell accepts a virus having bacterial DNA instead of viral DNA |
front 9 Transformation is | back 9 a piece of DNA is inserted into a bacterial cell (ex. shotgunning) |
front 10 conjugation is | back 10 when bacteria transfer genes through th epillus form the plasmid (a DNA accessory) - good for genetic engineering -does not occur often |
front 11 Genetic recombination methods are | back 11 conjugation, transformation, transduction |
front 12 Deinococcus radiodurans | back 12 bacteria that survive radiation due to its fast repair system |
front 13 alkylating agents are | back 13 methyl group to guanine, cause it to pair with thymine instead of cytosine - acvidine derivative - distorts helix - partial unwinding of DNA - from x-rays, UV light, gamma rays |
front 14 Frameshift mutation/ insertion or deletion | back 14 mutation, which changes the codon reading frame from the point of mutation to the final codon -almost ALWAYS leads to a non-functional protein - spontaneous or chemically induced |
front 15 nonsense mutation | back 15 mutation that changes an amino acid producing codon into a STOP CODON, leading to premature termination |
front 16 silent/missense mutation | back 16 mutation that does not affect the protein |
front 17 the three parts of an enzyme are | back 17 -active site -cofactor -apoenzyme |
front 18 an exon is | back 18 clean mRNA; a region in the genome that ends up within an mRNA molecule |
front 19 intron | back 19 junk, segment of DNA or RNA that does not code for proteins |
front 20 IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS, DNA HAS | back 20 SECTIONS THAT CANNOT PRODUCE mRNA - they get "cleaned" by spliceosome- molecule of riboenzyme (made of RNA) |
front 21 in eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the | back 21 nucleus |
front 22 in bacteria, transcription occurs in the | back 22 cytoplasm |
front 23 Final step of protein synthesis | back 23 the A site products go to the P site, when the P site is full it releases through the E site. |
front 24 Second step of protein synthesis | back 24 tRNA brings the complementary bases to the A site |
front 25 The first step of protein synthesis is | back 25 mRNA comes from transcription, and binds to the codon on the A site |
front 26 Which are NOT stop codons in PARAMECIUM? | back 26 UAA and UAG, they code for glutamine instead |
front 27 The genetic code is | back 27 C,U,G,A correspond to codons for mRNA 64 codons, 20 amino acids universal language of life |
front 28 UAG, UAA, UGA are all | back 28 stop codons ( when a protein detaches from a ribosome, the stop codon has been read) |
front 29 AUG is | back 29 start codon |
front 30 tRNA is | back 30 in protein synthesis in ribosomes comes from transcription has about 75-80 nitrogen bases are loaded with one amino acid TAKES AMINO ACIDS TO THE RIBOSOME FOR TRANSLATION IN THE A SITE |
front 31 Define a ribosome | back 31 an organelle made of rRNA and a protein -rRNA is used for identification |
front 32 How many nitrogenous bases make a codon | back 32 three |
front 33 What is transcription | back 33 process by which genetic information from DNA is written into mRNA by RNA polymerase |
front 34 What is Translation | back 34 The process of converting a sequence of mRNA into a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis |
front 35 a eukaryotic cell stores its DNA by | back 35 enclosing nucleic acids in nuclear membrane |
front 36 a prokaryotic cell stores its DNA by | back 36 DNA is spread out through the cell |
front 37 flagellum function | back 37 movement, made of proteins, can rotate 360 degrees |
front 38 Fimbrae function | back 38 appendages for attachment |
front 39 Pilli function | back 39
sex organ |
front 40 plasmid | back 40 little round pieces of DNA, resistant to chemicals. |
front 41 bacteria with one flagellum at one end | back 41 monotrichous |
front 42 bacteria with two flagellum at opposite ends | back 42 amphitrichous |
front 43 bacteria with three flagellum at the same end | back 43 lophotrichous |
front 44 bacteria with flagella all over the cell surface | back 44 peritrichous |
front 45 Bacteria with no flagella | back 45 atrichous |
front 46 bacteria with one flagella on one end and 3 flagella on the other end | back 46 amphilopotrichous |
front 47 some bacteria have a capsule because | back 47 it makes them more resistant (hard capsule made up of sugar) |
front 48 other bacteria will develop a sticky layer to | back 48 Survive longer (useful for attachment) |
front 49 the cell envelope is made up of | back 49 - glycocalyx (slime layer or capsule) |
front 50 the cell wall is made up of | back 50 2 different carbohydrates and a bridge of amino acids |
front 51 penicillin can | back 51 affect the synthesis of peptidoglycan (stops synthesis of cell wall) |
front 52 what characterizes gram positive cells? | back 52 techoic and lipotechoic acid |
front 53 LPSA | back 53 appears only in gram negative bacteria, 1st to make a person sick |
front 54 Grancilicutes | back 54 gram negative |
front 55 firmicutes | back 55 gram positive |
front 56 Tenericutes | back 56 lack a cell wall, soft |
front 57 Mendosicutes | back 57 archaea with unusual cell walls |
front 58 rickettsias | back 58 can grow inside human cells |
front 59 mycoplasma | back 59 has no cell wall, very small, found in plants, soil, and animals, mycoplasma pneumonia, an antibiotic that will affect protein synthesis |
front 60 What is anabolism? | back 60 synthesis of cell PRODUCTS; REQUIRES ENERGY building up (ex. building up of glucose to make glycogen) |
front 61 What is catabolism? | back 61 Breakdown of LARGER molecules into SMALLER ones; RELEASES energy; pathways of metabolic schemes are generally complex and detailed |
front 62 Name of the two carbon molecule that feed or enters directly into the krebs cycle | back 62 Acetyl-CoA |
front 63 what are the two MAIN products of aerobic respiration? | back 63 ATP and WATER |
front 64 What is the name of the 3-carbon molecule produced in glycolysis? | back 64 pyruvic acid |
front 65 Cellular respiration is | back 65 O2 + organic molecule Chloroplast take CO2 + H2O ----> glucose + oxygen |
front 66 Allosteric inhibition is | back 66 when inhibitor BINDS to holoenzyme and CHANGES the shape; making the substrate unable to bind |
front 67 Deamination is | back 67 when amino acids can be used as a SOURCE OF GLUCOSE (glucogenisis) releasing NH4+ |
front 68 Transamination is | back 68 when an amino acid and a carbohydrate make another amino acid |
front 69 Describe Amination | back 69 when pyruvic acid can be CONVERTED to amino acids by adding NH4+ |
front 70 Genetic engineering is | back 70 the MANIPULATION of DNA |
front 71 Ligases- | back 71 CLOSE (ligates or unite) a fragment of DNA to vector DNA |
front 72 Restriction endonucleases- | back 72 OPEN (cleave or splice) DNA at specific palindromic sequences. fragments can be joined at the sticky ends. these enzymes are also involved in the inactivation of viral genomes |
front 73 reverse transcriptase- | back 73 converts mRNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) devoid of introns In SARS, first the RNA is converted to DNA in PCR |
front 74 What is gel electrophoresis? | back 74 the use of electrical current through an agarose gel. DNA that is negatively charged will migrate towards the positive end of the pole. This allows fragments to travel based on their molecular weight. The results are compared to a control. |
front 75 Describe a gene probe | back 75 a segment of DNA or RNA of a known sequence that can base-pair with a stretch of DNA that has a complementary sequence. short, single strands of 6 to 25 nucleotides called oligonucleotides are used as gene probes |
front 76 Southern Blot | back 76 Separates fragments of DNA using electrophoresis and identifies them using hybridization |
front 77 Northern blot | back 77 Separates fragments of RNA using electrophoresis and identifies them using hybridization |
front 78 Western blot | back 78 Separates fragments of PROTEIN using electrophoresis and identifies them using hybridization |
front 79 DNA sequencing is | back 79 determination of actual order and types of bases in a 5' to 3' direction in a segment of DNA. Done with 'automatic sequencing machines' (rate of mistakes: 1 in 1000 bases) |
front 80 PCR is | back 80 the amplification of fragments of nucleic acids for further analysis, it uses specialized DNA polymerases isolated from thermophilic bacteria (Taq- from Thermus aquaticus) |
front 81 The steps for PCR are | back 81 -Denaturation (@ 94 degrees Celsius) - priming (annealing) oligonucleotide primers attach at ends of strands to promote replication (@ 50–65 degrees Celsius) - Extension (@ 72 degrees Celsius) DNAP nucleotides are added to produce 2 complete strands |
front 82 Agrobacterium tumefaciums | back 82 cancer, tumor in plants |
front 83 Bacillus therogenesis | back 83 killed worms that ate the nodules that produced nitrogen fixation from plants |
front 84 What are the properties of enzymes? | back 84 - become physically attached to the substrate - participate in bonding - do NOT become part of its products -Not used up by the chemical reaction -Can function over and over again |
front 85 What do coenzymes do? | back 85 Carrier of functional groups (CO2,(NH3+ = amino group NH2), and others) WORK with APOENZYME to perform necessary alterations in a substrate REMOVAL of functional groups SERVE as transient carrier of specific atoms or functional groups during metabolic reactions |
front 86 What is a cofactor? | back 86 an enzyme accessory that can be organic (coenzymes) or inorganic such as (iron, manganese, or zinc ions) Metals participate in PRECISE functions between the enzyme and the substrate ENZYMES NEED COFACTORS |
front 87 The role of cofactors are to? | back 87 ACTIVATE enzymes Help bring the active site and substrate CLOSE together Participate DIRECTLY in chemical reaction with the enzyme substrate complex |
front 88 What are constitutive enzymes? | back 88 enzymes that are ALWAYS present and in constant amount of cell regardless the amount of substrate |
front 89 What are properties of regulated enzymes? | back 89 - are not in constant amount in a cell -produced only when substrate is present (INDUCIBLE) -turned off when substrate is absent (REPRESSED) |
front 90 Describe denaturation | back 90 -occurs when weak bonds of apoenzymes are broken -distorts the shape of the enzyme -prevents the substrate from attaching to the active site |
front 91 What are Oxireducatses? | back 91 A group of enzymes that can remove electrons from one substrate and add them to another |
front 92 What are the patterns of pathways | back 92 linear, cyclic, branched |
front 93 Describe competitive inhibition | back 93 other molecules with a structure similar to the normal substrate COMPETE to occupy the enzymes active site. |
front 94 Describe the Krebs Cycle/ Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle | back 94 - discovered by egleston and krebs -occurs in the CYTOPLASM of PROKARYOTES and in the MITOCHONDRIA in EUKARYOTES -processes the final 2 acetyl-CoA coming from PYRUVIC ACID obtained from the DEGRADATION of GLUCOSE 6C though GLYCOLYSIS - cycle has 8 steps, REDUCES 2 FAD and 8 NAD's, releases 2 CO2 and PRODUCES 2 ATP by substrate level phosphoylation |
front 95 Describe glycolysis | back 95 - OXIDATION of GLUCOSE into 2 MOLECULES of PYRUVIC ACID -occurs in the CYTOPLASM -most COMMONLY used sequence of reaction for the conversion of GLUCOSE into PYRUVATE - produced 2 ATP's, 2 NADH's and 2 H2O molecules -DOES NOT REQUIRE OXYGEN |
front 96 Describe the Electron Transport Chain | back 96 occurs in the CELL MEMBRANE of PROKARYOTES and in the MITOCHONDRIA of EUKARYOTES - made of a chain of special redox carriers that recieved electrons from reduced carriers -Produces about 34 ATPS and 6 H2O MOLECULES -in aerobic metabolism, oxygen is the FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR and combines with H ions (protons) to form water - in anaerobic metabolism, other ions may act as the final electron acceptors |
front 97 What is the Chemiosmotic Theory | back 97 - explains the origin and maintenance of electro-potential gradients across a membrane that leads to ATP synthase (oxidative level phosphorylation) - the energy obtained is used to GENERATE up to 38 ATP |
front 98 Describe Anaerobic Respiration | back 98 -fermentation - the conversion of PYRUVIC ACID to ORGANIC ACID or alcohol (or other organic compounds, producing ATP -organic molecules can serve as FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTORS - 2 ATP's maximum per glucose molecule |
front 99 What are allosteric enzymes? | back 99 Enzymes that have and additional regulatory site for the attachment of molecules other than the substrate. Distort the active site so no binding to substrate occurs without denaturation |
front 100 Which describes energy of activation? | back 100 Minimum energy input necessary for reactants to form products in a chemical reaction - less if enzyme IS PRESENT - more if enzyme is ABSENT or low in concentration |