What is Perception

Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give meaning to the environment

Bottom-Up Processing

Starts with sensory input → brain builds perception

Top-Down Processing

Uses prior knowledge, expectations, and schemas to interpret stimuli

Internal Factors Influencing Perception

Motivation, emotions, expectations, perceptual set, schemas

External Factors Influencing Perception

Stimulus intensity, contrast, novelty, context

What is Selective Attention

Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others (e.g., cocktail party effect)

Inattentional Blindness

Missing visible objects when attention is elsewhere

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in a scene

Gestalt Principles

- Figure-Ground: Distinguish object from background.

- Grouping: Proximity, similarity, closure

What are Depth Perception & Binocular Cues

- Retinal Disparity: Difference between eyes’ images.

- Convergence: Eye muscle tension signals depth

Monocular Cues

Relative size, linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient, relative clarity

Perceptual Constancies

- Color Constancy: Perceive color as constant under varying light.

- Shape & Size Constancy: Objects remain same despite changes in view.

Apparent Motion

<p>- Phi Phenomenon: Lights blinking appear as motion.</p> <p>- Stroboscopic Movement: Rapid images create illusion of movement.</p> <br>

Perceptual Adaptation

Ability to adjust to changed sensory input (e.g., wearing prism glasses)

What is Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding, including thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving

What are Concepts and Prototypes

- Concept: Mental grouping of similar objects or ideas.

- Prototype: Best example of a concept.

What are Schemas and How Do They Change

- Schema: Mental framework for organizing info.

- Assimilation: Fit new info into existing schema.

- Accommodation: Modify schema for new info

Algorithms

Step-by-step method; guarantees solution

Heuristics

Mental shortcut; faster but error-prone

Common Heuristics

<p>- Representativeness: Judge by similarity to prototype.</p> <p>- Availability: Judge by ease of recall.</p> <br>

Influences on Decision-Making

Framing, priming, intuition, overconfidence, belief perseverance

Fallacies Affecting Decisions

- Gambler’s Fallacy: Expect reversal after a streak.

- Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continue due to prior investment.

What is Functional Fixedness

Tendency to see objects only in their usual function; limits problem-solving

Mental Set

Use past strategies even if ineffective

Fixation

Inability to see new solutions

What is Insight

Sudden realization of a solution without a strategy

Executive Functions

Higher-level processes like planning, inhibition, and flexible thinking

Creativity Types

- Divergent Thinking: Many possible solutions.

- Convergent Thinking: One correct solution

What is Memory

he process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information

Types of Memory

- Explicit: Conscious recall (episodic & semantic).

- Implicit: Unconscious skills (procedural).

- Prospective: Remembering future tasks.

What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synapses through repeated activation; basis for learning and memory

Multi-Store Model of Memory

- Sensory Memory: Brief info storage (iconic, echoic).

- Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity.

- Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage.

Working Memory Model

<p>- Central Executive: Controls attention.</p> <p>- Phonological Loop: Verbal info.</p> <p>- Visuospatial Sketchpad: Visual info.</p> <br>

Levels of Processing Model

- Shallow: Structural/phonemic.

- Deep: Semantic → better retention.

Sensory Memory Types

- Iconic: Visual (milliseconds).

- Echoic: Auditory (seconds).

Retrieval Processes

Accessing stored info; influenced by cues and context

Neurogenesis and Memory

Formation of new neurons supports learning and memory

Encoding Types

- Automatic: Unconscious.

- Effortful: Requires attention.

What is Encoding

The process of getting information into memory for storage and later retrieval

Why is Encoding Important

Effective storage and retrieval depend on how well information is encoded

What are Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids that use vivid imagery or organizational strategies (e.g., Method of Loci)

What is Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory (e.g., phone numbers)

What are Categories and Hierarchies

Organizing info into structured groups for easier recall

What is the Spacing Effect

Distributed practice improves long-term retention compared to massed practice

Massed Practice vs. Distributed Practice

<p>- Massed: Cramming; less effective.</p> <p>- Distributed: Spread out sessions; better retention</p> <br>

What is the Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall first and last items best

Primacy Effect

Better recall for first items

Recency Effect

Better recall for last items

Types of Memory Storage

- Sensory Memory: Brief info storage (iconic, echoic).

- Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity (~7 items).

- Working Memory: Active processing of info.

- Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage.

How to Prolong Memory Storage

- Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition.

- Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new info to existing knowledge

What is Memory Consolidation

Process of stabilizing memories for long-term storage; occurs during sleep.

Biological Processes of Memory

<p>- Neurogenesis: New neurons.</p> <p>- Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthened synapses.</p> <br>

Autobiographical Memories

<p>- Memory of personal life events and experiences.</p> <p>- Combines <strong>episodic</strong> (specific events) and <strong>semantic</strong> (general knowledge) elements.</p> <p>- Helps form identity and continuity over time.</p> <br>

Flashbulb Memories

- Vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event (e.g., 9/11).

- Often feels accurate but can be distorted over time.

- Linked to strong emotional arousal and stress hormones during encoding.

Memory Impairments

- Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of past memories.

- Anterograde Amnesia: Cannot form new memories.

- Alzheimer’s Disease: Progressive memory loss.

- Infantile Amnesia: No early childhood memories.

What is Retrieval

Process of accessing stored information from memory

What is Recall

Retrieve info without cues (e.g., essay)

What is Recognition

Identify info with cues (e.g., multiple choice)

What is Relearning

Faster learning of previously learned material

What are Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help access stored memories (e.g., smells, sounds)

What is Priming

Activation of associations in memory, often unconsciously, to aid retrieval

Encoding Specificity Principle

Retrieval is easier when conditions match encoding context

Context-Dependent Memory

Recall improves when in the same environment as encoding

State-Dependent Memory

Recall improves when in the same physiological or emotional state as encoding.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Tendency to recall memories consistent with current mood.

Testing Effect

Retrieval practice (testing) improves long-term retention more than re-studying

What is Interleaving

Mixing different topics during study improves learning and retrieval

What is the Forgetting Curve

Ebbinghaus’ finding that memory retention declines rapidly after learning, then levels off.

What is Encoding Failure

Information never properly stored because attention or processing was insufficient

Retrieval Difficulties

<p>- Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Knowing info but unable to retrieve it.</p> <p>- Lack of effective retrieval cues.</p> <br>

Interference Types

- Proactive: Old info interferes with new.

- Retroactive: New info interferes with old.

Psychodynamic Theory on Forgetting

Freud proposed repression—blocking painful memories from consciousness to protect the ego

Memory Inaccuracies

<p>- Misinformation Effect: False details added after event.</p> <p>- Source Amnesia: Forgetting origin of memory.</p> <p>- Constructive Memory: Memory is reconstructed, not exact.</p> <br>

Other Memory Errors

- Deja Vu: Feeling of familiarity without actual memory.

- Imagination Inflation: Repeated imagination increases belief event occurred.

What is Intelligence

Ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

General Intelligence (g)

Spearman’s idea of a single underlying factor influencing all cognitive abilities; identified via factor analysis

Fluid Intelligence

Problem-solving, adaptability; declines with age

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge; increases with age

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Gardner proposed 8+ intelligences (e.g., linguistic, spatial, musical); emphasizes diversity of abilities

Emotional Intelligence

Recognizing and managing your emotions

Grit

Perseverance and passion for long-term goals

Early IQ Tests

Stanford-Binet: Introduced IQ = (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100.

Modern IQ Tests

WAIS: Modern test measuring multiple cognitive skills.

Psychometric Principles

<p>- Standardization: Uniform procedures, norms.</p> <p>- Reliability: Consistency (test-retest, split-half).</p> <p>- Validity: Accuracy (content, construct, predictive).</p> <br>

Attempts to Reduce Bias in Intelligence Testing

- Culture-Fair Tests: Minimize language and cultural knowledge.

- Dynamic Assessment: Focus on learning potential rather than static score.

- Awareness of Stereotype Threat: Anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes can lower performance.

- Stereotype Lift: Positive stereotypes can boost performance.

What is Stereotype Threat and Lift

- Stereotype Threat: Fear of confirming a negative stereotype impairs performance (e.g., women in math tests).

- Stereotype Lift: Awareness of positive stereotypes improves performance.

Flynn Effect

Rising IQ scores over decades; attributed to better nutrition, education, and technology

Societal Issues with IQ Scores

Historically used to restrict access (eugenics, discrimination); raises ethical concerns.

Achievement tests

Measures learned knowledge

Aptitude Tests

Predicts future performance

What is a Fixed Mindset

Belief that intelligence and abilities are static; leads to avoidance of challenges and fear of failure

What is a Growth Mindset

Belief that intelligence and abilities can develop through effort and learning; promotes resilience and persistence