Myers' Psychology for the AP® Course: Unit 2 Flashcards

Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give meaning to the environment

Starts with sensory input → brain builds perception

Uses prior knowledge, expectations, and schemas to interpret stimuli

Motivation, emotions, expectations, perceptual set, schemas

Stimulus intensity, contrast, novelty, context

Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others (e.g., cocktail party effect)

Missing visible objects when attention is elsewhere

Failing to notice changes in a scene

- Figure-Ground: Distinguish object from background.

- Grouping: Proximity, similarity, closure

- Retinal Disparity: Difference between eyes’ images.

- Convergence: Eye muscle tension signals depth

Relative size, linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient, relative clarity

- Color Constancy: Perceive color as constant under varying light.

- Shape & Size Constancy: Objects remain same despite changes in view.

<p>- Phi Phenomenon: Lights blinking appear as motion.</p> <p>- Stroboscopic Movement: Rapid images create illusion of movement.</p> <br>

Ability to adjust to changed sensory input (e.g., wearing prism glasses)

Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding, including thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving

- Concept: Mental grouping of similar objects or ideas.

- Prototype: Best example of a concept.

- Schema: Mental framework for organizing info.

- Assimilation: Fit new info into existing schema.

- Accommodation: Modify schema for new info

Step-by-step method; guarantees solution

Mental shortcut; faster but error-prone

<p>- Representativeness: Judge by similarity to prototype.</p> <p>- Availability: Judge by ease of recall.</p> <br>

Framing, priming, intuition, overconfidence, belief perseverance

- Gambler’s Fallacy: Expect reversal after a streak.

- Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continue due to prior investment.

Tendency to see objects only in their usual function; limits problem-solving

Use past strategies even if ineffective

Inability to see new solutions

Sudden realization of a solution without a strategy

Higher-level processes like planning, inhibition, and flexible thinking

- Divergent Thinking: Many possible solutions.

- Convergent Thinking: One correct solution

he process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information

- Explicit: Conscious recall (episodic & semantic).

- Implicit: Unconscious skills (procedural).

- Prospective: Remembering future tasks.

Strengthening of synapses through repeated activation; basis for learning and memory

- Sensory Memory: Brief info storage (iconic, echoic).

- Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity.

- Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage.

<p>- Central Executive: Controls attention.</p> <p>- Phonological Loop: Verbal info.</p> <p>- Visuospatial Sketchpad: Visual info.</p> <br>

- Shallow: Structural/phonemic.

- Deep: Semantic → better retention.

- Iconic: Visual (milliseconds).

- Echoic: Auditory (seconds).

Accessing stored info; influenced by cues and context

Formation of new neurons supports learning and memory

- Automatic: Unconscious.

- Effortful: Requires attention.

The process of getting information into memory for storage and later retrieval

Effective storage and retrieval depend on how well information is encoded

Memory aids that use vivid imagery or organizational strategies (e.g., Method of Loci)

Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory (e.g., phone numbers)

Organizing info into structured groups for easier recall

Distributed practice improves long-term retention compared to massed practice

<p>- Massed: Cramming; less effective.</p> <p>- Distributed: Spread out sessions; better retention</p> <br>

Tendency to recall first and last items best

Better recall for first items

Better recall for last items

- Sensory Memory: Brief info storage (iconic, echoic).

- Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity (~7 items).

- Working Memory: Active processing of info.

- Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage.

- Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition.

- Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new info to existing knowledge

Process of stabilizing memories for long-term storage; occurs during sleep.

<p>- Neurogenesis: New neurons.</p> <p>- Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthened synapses.</p> <br>

<p>- Memory of personal life events and experiences.</p> <p>- Combines <strong>episodic</strong> (specific events) and <strong>semantic</strong> (general knowledge) elements.</p> <p>- Helps form identity and continuity over time.</p> <br>

- Vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event (e.g., 9/11).

- Often feels accurate but can be distorted over time.

- Linked to strong emotional arousal and stress hormones during encoding.

- Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of past memories.

- Anterograde Amnesia: Cannot form new memories.

- Alzheimer’s Disease: Progressive memory loss.

- Infantile Amnesia: No early childhood memories.

Process of accessing stored information from memory

Retrieve info without cues (e.g., essay)

Identify info with cues (e.g., multiple choice)

Faster learning of previously learned material

Stimuli that help access stored memories (e.g., smells, sounds)

Activation of associations in memory, often unconsciously, to aid retrieval

Retrieval is easier when conditions match encoding context

Recall improves when in the same environment as encoding

Recall improves when in the same physiological or emotional state as encoding.

Tendency to recall memories consistent with current mood.

Retrieval practice (testing) improves long-term retention more than re-studying

Mixing different topics during study improves learning and retrieval

Ebbinghaus’ finding that memory retention declines rapidly after learning, then levels off.

Information never properly stored because attention or processing was insufficient

<p>- Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Knowing info but unable to retrieve it.</p> <p>- Lack of effective retrieval cues.</p> <br>

- Proactive: Old info interferes with new.

- Retroactive: New info interferes with old.

Freud proposed repression—blocking painful memories from consciousness to protect the ego

<p>- Misinformation Effect: False details added after event.</p> <p>- Source Amnesia: Forgetting origin of memory.</p> <p>- Constructive Memory: Memory is reconstructed, not exact.</p> <br>

- Deja Vu: Feeling of familiarity without actual memory.

- Imagination Inflation: Repeated imagination increases belief event occurred.

Ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

Spearman’s idea of a single underlying factor influencing all cognitive abilities; identified via factor analysis

Problem-solving, adaptability; declines with age

Accumulated knowledge; increases with age

Gardner proposed 8+ intelligences (e.g., linguistic, spatial, musical); emphasizes diversity of abilities

Recognizing and managing your emotions

Perseverance and passion for long-term goals

Stanford-Binet: Introduced IQ = (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100.

WAIS: Modern test measuring multiple cognitive skills.

<p>- Standardization: Uniform procedures, norms.</p> <p>- Reliability: Consistency (test-retest, split-half).</p> <p>- Validity: Accuracy (content, construct, predictive).</p> <br>

- Culture-Fair Tests: Minimize language and cultural knowledge.

- Dynamic Assessment: Focus on learning potential rather than static score.

- Awareness of Stereotype Threat: Anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes can lower performance.

- Stereotype Lift: Positive stereotypes can boost performance.

- Stereotype Threat: Fear of confirming a negative stereotype impairs performance (e.g., women in math tests).

- Stereotype Lift: Awareness of positive stereotypes improves performance.

Rising IQ scores over decades; attributed to better nutrition, education, and technology

Historically used to restrict access (eugenics, discrimination); raises ethical concerns.

Measures learned knowledge

Predicts future performance

Belief that intelligence and abilities are static; leads to avoidance of challenges and fear of failure

Belief that intelligence and abilities can develop through effort and learning; promotes resilience and persistence