front 1 What is Perception | back 1 Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give meaning to the environment |
front 2 Bottom-Up Processing | back 2 Starts with sensory input → brain builds perception |
front 3 Top-Down Processing | back 3 Uses prior knowledge, expectations, and schemas to interpret stimuli |
front 4 Internal Factors Influencing Perception | back 4 Motivation, emotions, expectations, perceptual set, schemas |
front 5 External Factors Influencing Perception | back 5 Stimulus intensity, contrast, novelty, context |
front 6 What is Selective Attention | back 6 Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others (e.g., cocktail party effect) |
front 7 Inattentional Blindness | back 7 Missing visible objects when attention is elsewhere |
front 8 Change Blindness | back 8 Failing to notice changes in a scene |
front 9 Gestalt Principles | back 9 - Figure-Ground: Distinguish object from background. - Grouping: Proximity, similarity, closure |
front 10 What are Depth Perception & Binocular Cues | back 10 - Retinal Disparity: Difference between eyes’ images. - Convergence: Eye muscle tension signals depth |
front 11 Monocular Cues | back 11 Relative size, linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient, relative clarity |
front 12 Perceptual Constancies | back 12 - Color Constancy: Perceive color as constant under varying light. - Shape & Size Constancy: Objects remain same despite changes in view. |
front 13 Apparent Motion | back 13 <p>- Phi Phenomenon: Lights blinking appear as motion.</p> <p>- Stroboscopic Movement: Rapid images create illusion of movement.</p> <br> |
front 14 Perceptual Adaptation | back 14 Ability to adjust to changed sensory input (e.g., wearing prism glasses) |
front 15 What is Cognition | back 15 Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding, including thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving |
front 16 What are Concepts and Prototypes | back 16 - Concept: Mental grouping of similar objects or ideas. - Prototype: Best example of a concept. |
front 17 What are Schemas and How Do They Change | back 17 - Schema: Mental framework for organizing info. - Assimilation: Fit new info into existing schema. - Accommodation: Modify schema for new info |
front 18 Algorithms | back 18 Step-by-step method; guarantees solution |
front 19 Heuristics | back 19 Mental shortcut; faster but error-prone |
front 20 Common Heuristics | back 20 <p>- Representativeness: Judge by similarity to prototype.</p> <p>- Availability: Judge by ease of recall.</p> <br> |
front 21 Influences on Decision-Making | back 21 Framing, priming, intuition, overconfidence, belief perseverance |
front 22 Fallacies Affecting Decisions | back 22 - Gambler’s Fallacy: Expect reversal after a streak. - Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continue due to prior investment. |
front 23 What is Functional Fixedness | back 23 Tendency to see objects only in their usual function; limits problem-solving |
front 24 Mental Set | back 24 Use past strategies even if ineffective |
front 25 Fixation | back 25 Inability to see new solutions |
front 26 What is Insight | back 26 Sudden realization of a solution without a strategy |
front 27 Executive Functions | back 27 Higher-level processes like planning, inhibition, and flexible thinking |
front 28 Creativity Types | back 28 - Divergent Thinking: Many possible solutions. - Convergent Thinking: One correct solution |
front 29 What is Memory | back 29 he process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information |
front 30 Types of Memory | back 30 - Explicit: Conscious recall (episodic & semantic). - Implicit: Unconscious skills (procedural). - Prospective: Remembering future tasks. |
front 31 What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) | back 31 Strengthening of synapses through repeated activation; basis for learning and memory |
front 32 Multi-Store Model of Memory | back 32 - Sensory Memory: Brief info storage (iconic, echoic). - Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity. - Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage. |
front 33 Working Memory Model | back 33 <p>- Central Executive: Controls attention.</p> <p>- Phonological Loop: Verbal info.</p> <p>- Visuospatial Sketchpad: Visual info.</p> <br> |
front 34 Levels of Processing Model | back 34 - Shallow: Structural/phonemic. - Deep: Semantic → better retention. |
front 35 Sensory Memory Types | back 35 - Iconic: Visual (milliseconds). - Echoic: Auditory (seconds). |
front 36 Retrieval Processes | back 36 Accessing stored info; influenced by cues and context |
front 37 Neurogenesis and Memory | back 37 Formation of new neurons supports learning and memory |
front 38 Encoding Types | back 38 - Automatic: Unconscious. - Effortful: Requires attention. |
front 39 What is Encoding | back 39 The process of getting information into memory for storage and later retrieval |
front 40 Why is Encoding Important | back 40 Effective storage and retrieval depend on how well information is encoded |
front 41 What are Mnemonic Devices | back 41 Memory aids that use vivid imagery or organizational strategies (e.g., Method of Loci) |
front 42 What is Chunking | back 42 Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory (e.g., phone numbers) |
front 43 What are Categories and Hierarchies | back 43 Organizing info into structured groups for easier recall |
front 44 What is the Spacing Effect | back 44 Distributed practice improves long-term retention compared to massed practice |
front 45 Massed Practice vs. Distributed Practice | back 45 <p>- Massed: Cramming; less effective.</p> <p>- Distributed: Spread out sessions; better retention</p> <br> |
front 46 What is the Serial Position Effect | back 46 Tendency to recall first and last items best |
front 47 Primacy Effect | back 47 Better recall for first items |
front 48 Recency Effect | back 48 Better recall for last items |
front 49 Types of Memory Storage | back 49 - Sensory Memory: Brief info storage (iconic, echoic). - Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity (~7 items). - Working Memory: Active processing of info. - Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage. |
front 50 How to Prolong Memory Storage | back 50 - Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition. - Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new info to existing knowledge |
front 51 What is Memory Consolidation | back 51 Process of stabilizing memories for long-term storage; occurs during sleep. |
front 52 Biological Processes of Memory | back 52 <p>- Neurogenesis: New neurons.</p> <p>- Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthened synapses.</p> <br> |
front 53 Autobiographical Memories | back 53 <p>- Memory of personal life events and experiences.</p> <p>- Combines <strong>episodic</strong> (specific events) and <strong>semantic</strong> (general knowledge) elements.</p> <p>- Helps form identity and continuity over time.</p> <br> |
front 54 Flashbulb Memories | back 54 - Vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event (e.g., 9/11). - Often feels accurate but can be distorted over time. - Linked to strong emotional arousal and stress hormones during encoding. |
front 55 Memory Impairments | back 55 - Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of past memories. - Anterograde Amnesia: Cannot form new memories. - Alzheimer’s Disease: Progressive memory loss. - Infantile Amnesia: No early childhood memories. |
front 56 What is Retrieval | back 56 Process of accessing stored information from memory |
front 57 What is Recall | back 57 Retrieve info without cues (e.g., essay) |
front 58 What is Recognition | back 58 Identify info with cues (e.g., multiple choice) |
front 59 What is Relearning | back 59 Faster learning of previously learned material |
front 60 What are Retrieval Cues | back 60 Stimuli that help access stored memories (e.g., smells, sounds) |
front 61 What is Priming | back 61 Activation of associations in memory, often unconsciously, to aid retrieval |
front 62 Encoding Specificity Principle | back 62 Retrieval is easier when conditions match encoding context |
front 63 Context-Dependent Memory | back 63 Recall improves when in the same environment as encoding |
front 64 State-Dependent Memory | back 64 Recall improves when in the same physiological or emotional state as encoding. |
front 65 Mood-Congruent Memory | back 65 Tendency to recall memories consistent with current mood. |
front 66 Testing Effect | back 66 Retrieval practice (testing) improves long-term retention more than re-studying |
front 67 What is Interleaving | back 67 Mixing different topics during study improves learning and retrieval |
front 68 What is the Forgetting Curve | back 68 Ebbinghaus’ finding that memory retention declines rapidly after learning, then levels off. |
front 69 What is Encoding Failure | back 69 Information never properly stored because attention or processing was insufficient |
front 70 Retrieval Difficulties | back 70 <p>- Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Knowing info but unable to retrieve it.</p> <p>- Lack of effective retrieval cues.</p> <br> |
front 71 Interference Types | back 71 - Proactive: Old info interferes with new. - Retroactive: New info interferes with old. |
front 72 Psychodynamic Theory on Forgetting | back 72 Freud proposed repression—blocking painful memories from consciousness to protect the ego |
front 73 Memory Inaccuracies | back 73 <p>- Misinformation Effect: False details added after event.</p> <p>- Source Amnesia: Forgetting origin of memory.</p> <p>- Constructive Memory: Memory is reconstructed, not exact.</p> <br> |
front 74 Other Memory Errors | back 74 - Deja Vu: Feeling of familiarity without actual memory. - Imagination Inflation: Repeated imagination increases belief event occurred. |
front 75 What is Intelligence | back 75 Ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations |
front 76 General Intelligence (g) | back 76 Spearman’s idea of a single underlying factor influencing all cognitive abilities; identified via factor analysis |
front 77 Fluid Intelligence | back 77 Problem-solving, adaptability; declines with age |
front 78 Crystallized Intelligence | back 78 Accumulated knowledge; increases with age |
front 79 Multiple Intelligences Theory | back 79 Gardner proposed 8+ intelligences (e.g., linguistic, spatial, musical); emphasizes diversity of abilities |
front 80 Emotional Intelligence | back 80 Recognizing and managing your emotions |
front 81 Grit | back 81 Perseverance and passion for long-term goals |
front 82 Early IQ Tests | back 82 Stanford-Binet: Introduced IQ = (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100. |
front 83 Modern IQ Tests | back 83 WAIS: Modern test measuring multiple cognitive skills. |
front 84 Psychometric Principles | back 84 <p>- Standardization: Uniform procedures, norms.</p> <p>- Reliability: Consistency (test-retest, split-half).</p> <p>- Validity: Accuracy (content, construct, predictive).</p> <br> |
front 85 Attempts to Reduce Bias in Intelligence Testing | back 85 - Culture-Fair Tests: Minimize language and cultural knowledge. - Dynamic Assessment: Focus on learning potential rather than static score. - Awareness of Stereotype Threat: Anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes can lower performance. - Stereotype Lift: Positive stereotypes can boost performance. |
front 86 What is Stereotype Threat and Lift | back 86 - Stereotype Threat: Fear of confirming a negative stereotype impairs performance (e.g., women in math tests). - Stereotype Lift: Awareness of positive stereotypes improves performance. |
front 87 Flynn Effect | back 87 Rising IQ scores over decades; attributed to better nutrition, education, and technology |
front 88 Societal Issues with IQ Scores | back 88 Historically used to restrict access (eugenics, discrimination); raises ethical concerns. |
front 89 Achievement tests | back 89 Measures learned knowledge |
front 90 Aptitude Tests | back 90 Predicts future performance |
front 91 What is a Fixed Mindset | back 91 Belief that intelligence and abilities are static; leads to avoidance of challenges and fear of failure |
front 92 What is a Growth Mindset | back 92 Belief that intelligence and abilities can develop through effort and learning; promotes resilience and persistence |