What do enzymes do?

Speed up reactions/ catalyze them

How does temperature affect enzymes?

If temp is too low, there is not enough kinetic energy, if temp is too high, enzymes denature, Rate of reaction increases as temp increases to a maximum then declines when temperature continues to increase

Enzymes

Proteins that speed up or catalyze a reaction

Active site

Substrate binding site

Denaturation

Breakdown of secondary and tertiary structures of protein

Competitive inhibitor

Binds and competes for active site on enzyme

Non-Competitive Inhibitor

Impede activity without binding to active site (Changes active site shape)

Ea (activation energy)

energy needed to make a reaction occur, catalysts provide this to reactions

Cofactors

Usually metallic ions that assist enzymes

Coenzymes

Organic cofactors

Catecholase

found in fruits and veggies (potatoes), facilitates reaction between catechol and oxygen

What is catechol converted to?

Benzoquinone

How does pH affect enzymes?

Each enzyme has an optimal pH, if too high or too low enzymes denature

How does enzyme concentration affect enzymes?

More enzymes means faster product, with more enzymes means more active sites, more enzymes raise saturation level

How does substrate concentration affect enzymes?

When raised the velocity of the reaction will increase until it reaches saturation point (maximum) then remain constant

Cellular Respiration Formula

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

Heterotrophs

Do not use photosynthesis but obtain food from outside sources

Facultative anaerobes

can live in aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Ex: yeast)

Glycolysis: aerobic or anaerobic?

Anaerobic

Where does glycolysis happen?

In cytoplasm

What does glycolysis produce?

4 ATP 2 pyruvate

Dehydrogenase

Transfers H+ from substrate to coenzyme

What coenzymes does glycolysis produce?

2 NADH

Where does fermentation happen?

Cytoplasm

What is fermentation? What are the types?

Metabolizes pyruvate when O2 is unavailable, produces 2 ATP, yields alcohol and CO2 or lactic acid

Why is there iodoform (flaky yellow precipitate) when yeast, NaOH, and lugols are mixed?

Iodoform forms from interaction with the alcohol because fermentation happened

What is the transition reaction?

Happens in mitochondria, converts pyruvate to CoA, makes CO2 as a by-product

Where does the Kreb Cycle happen?

Matrix of mitochondria

Krebs: aerobic or anaerobic?

Aerobic

what are Coenzymes of Krebs?

NADH and FADH2

what are Products of Krebs?

1 CoA = 1 ATP, 2 CO2, 3 NADH, & 1 NADPH doubled for complete glucose

What is used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP?

Electron transport chain, ATP synthase uses H+ gradient

Where is the electron transport chain?

Inner membrane mitochondria

Cristae

Inner folds of mitochondria

H2O

By-product of electron transport chain

O2

Final electron acceptor of electron transport chain

Photosynthesis equation

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

What does photosynthesis do?

Captures sun light energy and stores it in chemical bonds of carbohydrates

Stomata

Underside of leaves, closes in intense heat

Xylum

Water transport system (roots to stem)

Where does light reaction happen?

Thylakoids

Granum

Stack of thylakoids

Stroma

Outside of granum

Chlorophyll A

Main chlorophyll pigment

Chlorophyll B

More O's in ring structure than other chlorophyll pigment

Carotenoids

Accessory pigments for excess light

Xanthophyll

Pigment within vacuoles and do not perform photosynthesis

Light-Dependent Reaction Equation

H2O + ADP + Pi + NADP+ --> ½ O2 + ATP + NADPH + H+

Which photosystem phosphorylates ADP?

Photosystem I

What splits H2O in photosynthesis?

light

Where do the things from noncyclic photosystem II go?

O2 into atmosphere, H+ to electron transport, electrons to photosystem I

What wavelength is violet?

400nm

What wavelength is blue?

450nm

What wavelength is green?

500nm

What wavelength is yellow?

550nm

What wavelength is orange?

600nm

What wavelength is red?

700nm

What wavelength is gamma?

< 1nm

What wavelength is X-ray?

<1-100nm

What wavelength is UV?

100-350nm

What wavelength is infrared?

750- <1 millimeter

What wavelength are microwave waves?

<1 millimeter- 1 meter

What wavelength are radio waves?

Thousands of meters

Active spectrum

relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of light (colors) for light- dependent processes

Which pigment is heaviest?

Chlorophyll B

Which pigment is lightest?

Carotenoids

Absorption spectrum

absorbance vs wavelength graphs

Dark reaction equation

6 CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ -->C6H12O6 + 18 ADP + 18 Pi + 12 NADP+ + 6 H2O

What happens in dark reaction?

Energy is stored by carbon dioxide fixation in carbohydrates

What is the result of mitosis?

Two identical daughter cells

Karyokinesis

nucleus division

cytokinesis

cytoplasm division

Chromatin

loosely packaged, not condensed DNA

Chromatid

condensed DNA

Centromeres

Waist of chromosome where sister chromatids attach

When does replication happen?

S phase

What happens in G2?

Cells are preparing to divide

What percent of a cells life is interphase?

90%

what are the Three phases of interphase?

G1, G2, S

What is the "restriction phase"?

G1

G0

Non dividing phase

Cell cycle

Describes life history of actively dividing cells

What happens in prophase?

Chromatin condenses, Centrioles go to poles and produce spindle fibers

Centrosome

2 centrioles

What does microtubules form from?

tubulin

Where do the spindle fibers attach?

Kinetochore

What happens in metaphase?

Sister chromatids line up at metaphase plate, Attached by spindle fibers to opposite centrioles

What happens in anaphase?

Sister chromatids separate at centromeres, Spindle fibers shorten at kinetochore end, Separated chromatids are called daughter chromosomes

What happens in telophase?

Spindle apparatus disappears, Nuclei and nucleoli reform, Chromosomes decondense and reform diffuse chromatin, 2 product daughter cells are identical, cytokinesis

What is cytokinesis? How does this happen in animals? Plants?

Separation of cytoplasm, cleavage furrow, cell plate

What does a cell do after mitosis?

Return to interphase

What happens to organelles during mitosis?

ER and golgi break down and are rebuilt, Lysosomes/ ribosomes get split between two cells, Mitochondria and chloroplasts are also split between cells

What is meiosis?

The production of sex cells or gametes

Diploid

2n

Haploid

n

Spores

haploid, germinate to form haploid individuals

What is the product of meiosis?

4 daughter cells with 1/2 # of chromosomes than parent cell

Homologous pairs

identical in size and shape

Locus

where genes for a particular trait are found

Allele

2 types of one gene

Homozygous

When alleles are the same genotype (gene content)

Heterozygous

When alleles are different genotypes (gene content)

Phenotype

appearance

Mendel's first law

states that alleles segregate in meiosis, when two haploid gametes combine during fertilization, two alleles are then present in offspring

Mendel's second law

states that alleles of unlinked genes assort independently

What happens in prophase I?

Homologous chromosomes come together and synapse, Tetrad forms (2 chromosomes)

Synaptonemal complex

Helps pair the homologs

Where does crossing over happen?

Chiasmata

What do centrioles do during Prophase I?

Centrioles replicated prior to division and move to poles

When do spindle fibers appear?

Prophase I

What happens in metaphase I?

Homologs line up at metaphase plate

What happens in anaphase I?

Homologs separate, Pulled to opposite sides by kinetochore microtubules

What happens in Telophase I?

Another centriole division, Cytokinesis, Produces 2 cells

What happens in Interphase II?

No replication

What happens in prophase II?

Centrioles to poles

What happens in metaphase II?

Sister chromatids at metaphase plate

What happens in anaphase II?

Sister chromatids loosely associated around centromere region, Sister chromatids are separated

What happens in telophase II?

Nuclear membranes form, Cytokinesis, 4 different daughter cells