A&P 2 Chapters 18, 19, 20, 21 Flashcards

The body contains two kinds of glands, what are they?

Secrete their products through ducts into body cavities or onto body surfaces. (sudoriferous, sebaceous, and digestive)

Secrete their products (hormones) into the extracellular spaces around the secretary cells, rather than into ducts. The secretion then diffuses into capillaries and is carried away by the blood.

The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands and several organs that contain endocrine tissue. True or False

In contrast, the endocrine system releases its messenger molecules, called _________, into the bloodstream

The nervous system controls homeostasis through _________ conducted along axons of neurons.

Is the following true?

Certain parts of the nervous system stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones. Hormones, in turn, may not promote or inhibit the generation of nerve impulses. True or False

The nervous system causes muscles to contract and glands to secrete; the endocrine system affects virtually all body tissues, what does this system affect??

Nerve impulses are generally much more what?

Hormones regulate the what?

Hormones also helps regulate what?

Hormones DO NOT play a role in the integration of growth and development, and in the maintenance of homeostasis despite emergency environmental disruptions, and contribute to the basic processes of reproduction. True or False

Hormones only affect specific________ that have _________ to recognize a given hormone.

Receptors, like other cellular proteins, are constantly synthesized and broken down. True or False

When a hormone (or neurotransmitter) is present in excess, the number of receptors may decrease __________, thereby decreasing the responsiveness of target cells to the hormone.

When a hormone (or neurotransmitter) is deficient, the number of receptors may increase __________, making the target tissue more sensitive to the stimulating effect of the hormone.

Hormones that pass into the blood to act on distant target cells are called what?

Hormones that act on target cells close to their site of release are called what?

Chemically, hormones are classified as what?

Water-soluble hormones circulate in free form in the blood; lipid-soluble steroid and thyroid hormones are carried attached to what?

The response to a hormone depends on what?

Hormones bind to and activate their specific receptors in two quite different ways. True or False

These 2 hormones affect cell function by binding to and activating an intracellular receptor (usually in the nucleus), consequently altering gene expression. What are they?

Altered by cell function by activating plasma membrane receptors, which initiate a cascade of events inside the cell. What is this called?

After a water-soluble hormone is release from an endocrine gland, it circulates in the blood, reaches a target cell, and brings a specific message to that cell; since such a hormone can deliver its message only to the plasma membrane, it is called the what?

A _____________ is needed to relay the message inside the cell where hormone-stimulated responses can take place; the best known second messenger is cyclic AMP (cAMP) but other substances are known second messengers.

What is the best known second messenger?

G-proteins are a common feature of most second messenger systems; the symptoms of cholera are a direct result of the cholera toxin on G-proteins in the intestinal lining. True or False

Cyclic AMP does not directly produce a particular physiological response, but instead activates one or more enzymes known as what?

The responsiveness of a target cell to a hormone depends on the hormone’s concentration and the number of receptors. The manner in which hormones interact with other hormones is also important: three hormonal interactions are the? (Hint: Remember the 3 effects)

Is the following true?

• Most hormones are released in short bursts, with little or no release between bursts. Regulation of hormone secretion normally maintains homeostasis and prevents overproduction or underproduction of a particular hormone; when these regulating mechanisms do not operate properly, disorders result, many of which are discussed below.

1. Hormone secretion is controlled by signals from the nervous system, by chemical changes in the blood, and by other hormones.
2. Most often, negative feedback systems regulate hormonal secretions.

What is the major integrating link between the nervous and endocrine systems?

The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland (hypophysis) do not regulate virtually all aspects of growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis. True or False

Where is the pituitary gland is located???

Hormones of the adenohypophysis are controlled by releasing or inhibiting hormones produced by the what?

The blood supply to the anterior pituitary is from the superior hypophyseal arteries. It carries releasing and inhibiting hormones to the anterior pituitary. True or False

Histologically, the anterior pituitary consists of five principal types of glandular cells. What are they?

Hint: Sarah loves to cry to guys.

Somatotrophs produce what hormone?

hGH is produced by who?

Lactotrophs produce what hormone?

Prolactin is produced by who?

Corticotrophs secrete what hormones?

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) are secreted by who?

Thyrotrophs secrete what hormone?

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) are secreted by who?

Gonadotrophs secrete what hormones?

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) are secreted by who?

Negative feedback systems will decrease the secretory activity of corticotrophs, thyrotrophs, and gonadotrophs if levels of their target gland hormones rise. True or False

Human growth hormone (hGH, GH, or somatotropin) does what?

Disorders associated with improper levels of hGH are what?

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH or thyrotropin) does what?

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) does what?

Luteinizing hormone (LH) does what?

Prolactin (PRL or lactogenic hormone) does what?

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) does what?

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) does what?

hGH stands for?

What does TSH stand for?

What does FSH mean?

What does LH stand for?

What does PRL stand for?

What does MSH stand for?

What does ACTH stand for?

Hormones made by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary, what are they called?

OT stands for?

What does ADH stand for?

Stimulates contraction of the uterus and ejection (let-down) of milk from the breasts; during labor and delivery, OT is released in large quantities.

Stimulates water reabsorption by the kidneys and arteriolar constriction.

OT secretion is not controlled by uterine distention and nursing. True or False

Synthetic OT (Pitocin) is often given to induce labor or to increase uterine tone and control hemorrhage just after giving birth. True or False

The effect of ADH is to decrease urine volume and conserve body water. True or False

ADH is controlled primarily by osmotic pressure of the blood. True or False

The thyroid gland is located just below the _________ and has right and left lateral lobes.

Histologically, the thyroid consists of thyroid follicles composed of follicular cells, which secrete the thyroid hormones called what?

IMPORTANT:

Thyroid hormones are synthesized from iodine and tyrosine within a large glycoprotein molecule called thyroglobulin (TGB) and are transported in the blood by plasma proteins, mostly thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG).

IMPORTANT:

Thyroid hormones regulate the what?

Disorders associated with the thyroid gland are what?

Calcitonin (CT) lowers the blood level of calcium. Secretion is controlled by calcium levels in the blood. True or False

The parathyroid glands are embedded where?

The parathyroids consist of what?

Parathyroid hormone (PTH), or parathormone, regulates what?

Disorders associated with parathyroid glands, what are they?

Tetany results from what?

Osteitis fibrosa cystica is characterized by what?

The adrenal glands are located where?

Histologically, the cortex is divided into 3 zones what are they?

Increase sodium and water reabsorption and decrease potassium reabsorption, helping to regulate sodium and potassium levels in the body. What is this called?

A dysfunction related to aldosterone hypersecretion is what?

Secretion is not controlled by the renin-angiotension pathway and the blood level of potassium. True or False

Promote normal organic metabolism, help resist stress, and serve as anti-inflammatory substances. What is this called?

Secretion is controlled by CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) and ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) from the anterior pituitary. True or False

Disorders associated with glucocorticoid secretion are what?

Secreted by the adrenal cortex usually have minimal effects. What is this called?

Excessive production occurs in congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), resulting in virilism (masculinization). True or False

Virilism or gynecomastia (excessive growth of male mammary glands) may also result from tumors of the adrenal gland. True or False

1. The adrenal medulla consists of hormone-producing cells, called __________ , which surround large blood-filled sinuses.

Medullary secretions are epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE), which produce effects similar to ___________.

They are released under stress by direct innervation from the autonomic nervous system. Like the glucocorticoids of the adrenal cortex, these hormones help the body resist stress. However, unlike the cortical hormones, the medullary hormones are not essential for life.

Tumors of the chromaffin cells, called _______. These cause hypersecretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Since these hormones create the same effect as sympathetic nervous stimulation, hypersecretion puts the individual into a prolonged state of fight-or-flight response, ultimately causing generalized fatigue and weakness.

The pancreas is a flattened organ located where?

What organ can be classified as both as a endocrine and an exocrine gland?

Histologically, the pancreas consists of pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans and clusters of cells (acini) (enzyme-producing exocrine cells). Four types of hormone-secreting cells compose the pancreatic islets. True or False

Secrete the hormone glucagon

Alpha cells secrete what hormone?

Alpha cells secretion is stimulated by what?

Glucagon increases blood glucose levels. True or False

Beta cells secrete what hormone?

Insulin is secreted from where?

Insulin decreases blood glucose levels. True or False

Insulin secretion is stimulated by what?

Disorders associated with insulin production are what?

These are located in the pelvic cavity and produce sex hormones (estrogens and progesterone) related to development and maintenance of female sexual characteristics, reproductive cycle, pregnancy, lactation, and normal reproductive functions. These also produce inhibin and relaxin.

Ovaries produce what hormone?

Lies inside the scrotum and produce sex hormones (primarily testosterone) related to the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics and normal reproductive functions. The testes also produce inhibin.

Testes produce what hormones?

Testes and ovaries both produce this hormone, what is it?

Is attached to the roof of the third ventricle, inside the brain. What is it?

Histologically, pineal gland consists of secretory parenchymal cells called parenchymal cells called pinealocytes, neuroglial cells, and scattered postganglionic sympathetic fibers. True or False

The pineal secretes melatonin in a diurnal rhythm linked to the dark-light cycle. That helps you to fall asleep. True or False

A type of depression that arises during the winter months when day length is short, is thought to be due, in part, to over-production of melatonin. Bright light therapy, repeated doses of several hours of exposure to artificial light as bright as sunlight, may provide relief for this disorder and for jet lag.

Secretes several hormones related to immunity, this is called?

The thymus produces what hormones?

What do the hormones of the Thymus gland do???

Prostaglandins (PGs) and leukotrienes (LTs) do not act as paracrines and autocrines in most body tissues by altering the production of second messengers, such as cyclic AMP. True or False

Prostaglandins have a wide range of biological activity in normal physiology and pathology. True or False

Aspirin and related nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen, inhibit a key enzyme in prostaglandin synthesis and are used to treat a wide variety of inflammatory disorders. True or False

___________ are hormones that stimulate cell growth and division.

Examples include epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), tumor angiogenesis factors (TAFs), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), and cytokines. True or False

____________ is initiated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus to the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and adrenal medulla.

Responses are the immediate and brief fight-or-flight reactions that increase circulation promote catabolism for energy production, and decrease nonessential activities.

____________ is initiated by regulating hormones secreted by the hypothalamus.

The regulating hormones are CRH (corticotrophin releasing hormone), GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone), and TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone).

CRH stimulates the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) to increase its secretion of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which in turn stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete hormones.

Resistance reactions are long-term and accelerate catabolism to provide energy to counteract stress.

Glucocorticoids are produced in high concentrations during stress. They create many distinct physiological effects.

____________ results from dramatic changes during alarm and resistance reactions.

Exhaustion is caused mainly by loss of potassium, depletion of adrenal glucocorticoids, and weakened organs. If stress is too great, it may lead to death.

1. It appears that stress can lead to certain diseases.
2. Among stress-related conditions are gastritis, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, peptic ulcers, hypertension, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), migraine headaches, anxiety, and depression.
3. It has also been shown that people under stress are at a greater risk of developing chronic disease or of dying prematurely.
4. A very important link between stress and immunity is interleukin-1 (IL-1) produced by macrophages; it stimulates secretion of ACTH.

True or False

End of chapter 18

Blood inside blood vessels, interstitial fluid around body cells, and lymph inside lymph vessels constitute one’s what?

The blood, heart, and blood vessels together make up the cardiovascular system. True or False

The lymph, lymphatic vessels that transport lymph, and structures and organs containing lymphatic tissue (large clusters of white blood cells called lymphocytes) make up the what???

The branch of science concerned with the study of blood, blood-forming tissues, and the disorders associated with them is called?

FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD ARE WHAT?

Physical characteristics of blood include a viscosity greater than that of water; temperature, 38°C (100.4°F); and a pH of 7.35 to 7.45. True or False

The pH of blood is what?

Blood constitutes about ________ of body weight; volume ranges from 4 to 6 liters.

Blood samples for laboratory testing may be obtained by?

Blood consists of 55% plasma and 45% formed elements.

Plasma consists of 91.5% and 8.5% solutes.

Principal solutes include proteins (albumins, globulins, fibrinogen), nutrients, enzymes, hormones, respiratory gases, electrolytes, and waste products. True or False

1. The __________ in blood include erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets).

Formed elements come from where?

Blood cells are formed from pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells called?

Hemopoiesis (or hematopoiesis) is stimulated by several hematopoietic growth factors. These hematopoietic growth factors stimulate differentiation and proliferation of the various blood cells. True or False

Red bone marrow (myeloid tissue) is responsible for producing red blood cells, granular leukocytes, and platelets; lymphoid tissue and myeloid tissue produce agranular leukocytes. True or False

Are biconcave discs without nuclei that contain what?

Erythrocytes are known as?

Hemoglobin molecules are specialized components of the red blood cell plasma membrane which combine with oxygen (as oxyhemoglobin) or with carbon dioxide (as carbaminohemoglobin) in this transport process. True or False

A serious disorder called sickle-cell anemia (SCA) is due to what?

Has been used by some athletes in an attempt to boost the oxygen-carrying capacity of their blood before an athletic event. Although evidence suggests that there may be performance benefits related to the procedure, the potential risks from higher blood viscosity are unknown and the practice is considered dishonest by the International Olympics Committee. What is this called?

Red blood cells live for how long?

A healthy male has how many red blood cells?

A healthy female has how many red blood cells?

After phagocytosis of worn-out RBCs by macrophages, hemoglobin is ________. The globin portion is split from the heme with the amino acids being reused for protein synthesis. The iron in the heme portion is reclaimed with the rest of the heme molecule; the rest becomes a component of bile in the digestive process.

Erythrocyte formation is called what?

Occurs in adult red bone marrow of certain bones. It is stimulated by hypoxia, which stimulates release of ____________ by the kidneys.

A reticulocyte count (average 0.5%-1.5% of all RBCs) is a diagnostic test that indicates the rate of erythropoiesis, useful in diagnosing and treating anemia. True or False

Measures the percentage of red blood cells in whole blood.

An average male has a hematocrit range of?

Females have a hematocrit range of?

Leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs) are nucleated cells and do not contain hemoglobin. True or False

Are nucleated cells and do not contain hemoglobin, what is this called?

Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils are what? G ranular or Agranular

Lymphocytes and Monocytes are what? G ranular or Agranular

Leukocytes have surface proteins, as do erythrocytes

Are unique for each person (except for identical twins), and can be used to identify a tissue. What is this called?

Is performed to determine tissue compatibility between a donor and a recipient before any organ transplant. What is this called?

The general function of leukocytes is to what?

___________ and wandering or fixed macrophages (which develop from monocytes) do so through phagocytosis.

__________ combat the effects of histamine in allergic reactions, phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes, and combat parasitic worms.

___________ develop into mast cells that liberate heparin, histamine, and serotonin in allergic reactions that intensify the inflammatory response.

____________ in response to the presence of foreign substances called antigens, differentiate into tissue plasma cells that produce antibodies.

-Antibodies attach to the antigens and render them harmless.

-This antigen-antibody response combats infection and provides immunity.

This destroys foreign invaders directly.

Is a diagnostic test in which specific white blood cells are enumerated. Because each type of white cell plays a different role, determining the percentage of each type in the blood assists in diagnosing the condition. What is this called?

White blood cells usually live for only a few hours or a few days. Normal blood contains 5,000-10,000 leukocytes/mm³. True or False

May be used to treat several types of anemia, leukemia, and numerous other blood disorders. What is this called?

Are disc-shaped structures without nuclei, what is this called?

1. They are formed as fragments from meta-megakaryocytes; they help repair slightly damaged blood vessels and promote blood clotting.
2. Normal blood contains 250,000 to 400,000 platelets/mm³. Platelets have a life span of only 5-9 days; aged and dead platelets are removed by fixed macrophages in the spleen and liver.

Is used to determine blood cell counts, hemoglobin, hematocrit, white blood cell count, differential white blood cell count, and platelet count. What is this called?

This refers to the stoppage of bleeding. When blood vessels are damaged or ruptured, the hemostatic response must be quick, localized to the region of damage, and carefully controlled. What is this called?

Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation (clotting). True or False

The smooth muscle of a blood vessel wall contracts to stop bleeding. What is this called?

Involves the clumping of platelets around the damage to stop the bleeding. What is this called?

1. A ______ is a gel consisting of a network of insoluble protein fibers (fibrin) in which formed elements of blood are trapped.
   1. The chemicals involved in clotting are known as coagulation (clotting) factors; most are in blood plasma, some are released by platelets, and one is released from damaged tissue cells.
   2. Blood clotting involves a cascade of reactions that may be divided into three stages.
      1. Formation of prothrombinase (prothrombin activator)
      2. Conversion of prothrombin into thrombin.
      3. Conversion of solute fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin

The formation of prothrombinase is initiated by the interplay of two mechanisms called the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of blood clotting. True or False

Refers to several different hereditary deficiencies of coagulation in which bleeding may occur spontaneously or after only minor trauma. What is this called?

The formation of prothrombinase is initiated by the interplay of two mechanisms called?

Normal coagulation requires vitamin K and also involves?

Tightening of the clot this called?

Dissolution of the clot is called?

_____________ are chemical substances injected into the body that dissolve blood clots to restore circulation; the most common use is in treatment of clots in coronary arteries of the heart (streptokinase and tissue plasminogen activator, or t-PA).

1. Substances that inhibit coagulation, called ____________, are also present in blood. An example is heparin.

Despite the anticoagulating and fibrinolytic mechanisms, blood clots sometimes form within the cardiovascular system. True or False

Clotting in an unbroken blood vessel is called what?

A __________ bubble of air, fat from broken bones, or piece of debris transported by the bloodstream that moves from its site of origin is called an embolus.

The surfaces of red blood cells contain genetically determined blood group antigens, called agglutinogens or isoantigens, and the plasma of many persons contains genetically determined antibodies, called agglutinins or isoantibodies, against the blood group antigens which they do not have. True or False

agglutinogens

isoantigens

agglutinins

isoantibodies

All of these are simply known as what?

The ABO and Rh blood grouping systems are based on antigen-antibody responses. True or False

Individuals whose erythrocytes have Rh agglutinogens are classified as Rh⁺ and those who lack the antigen are Rh^-. True or False

A disorder due to Rh incompatibility between mother and fetus is called what? Also This disease is treatable, but also preventable

Is a condition in which the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is reduced; it is a sign, not a diagnosis and is usually characterized by a decreased erythrocyte count or hemoglobin deficiency. What is this called?

Kinds of anemia include are what?

Is an abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes (Hct > 55%). Increased viscosity of the blood causes a rise in blood pressure and contributes to thrombosis and hemorrhage. What is this called?

Is a contagious disease that primarily affects lymphoid tissue. It is characterized by an elevated white blood cell count, with an abnormally high percentage of lymphocytes. The cause is the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). What is this called?

___________ is a malignant disease of blood-forming tissue characterized by the uncontrolled production of white blood cells that interferes with normal clotting and vital body activities. It is classified based on the duration and character of the disease and also according to the identity and site of origins of the predominant cell involved (myelocytic, lymphocytic, or monocytic).

Is characterized by uncontrolled production and accumulation of immature leukocytes. What is this called?

In ________, there is an accumulation of mature leukocytes in the bloodstream because they do not die at the end of their normal life span.

End of Chapter 19

What organ is the center of the cardiovascular system?

LOCATION AND SIZE OF THE HEART

The heart is enclosed by and held in place by?

The pericardium consists of an outer ______________ and an inner ___________.

The serous pericardium is not composed of a parietal layer and a visceral layer. True or False

Between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous pericardium is the ___________, a potential space filled with pericardial fluid that reduces friction between the two membranes.

Pericardial fluid does what?

An inflammation of the pericardium is known as what?

Associated bleeding into the pericardial cavity compresses the heart (cardiac tamponade) and is potentially lethal. True or False

The wall of the heart has three layers: what are they?

Hint: Think "eat my egg"

The epicardium consists of?

The myocardium is composed of?

The endocardium consists of?

The chambers of the heart include?

What separates the atria??

What separates the ventricles?

What does septum mean?

Blood flows through the heart from the superior and inferior venae cavae and the coronary sinus to the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, through the pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arteries to the lungs, through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, through the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle, and out through the aorta.

Divisions of the aorta are the?

These are composed of dense connective tissue covered by endothelium, prevent backflow of blood in the heart. What are they?

Atrioventricular (AV) valves, between the atria and their ventricles, are the tricuspid valve on the right side of the heart and the bicuspid (mitral) valve on the left. True or False

The chordinae tendineae and their papillary muscles keep the flaps of the valves pointing in the direction of the blood flow and stop blood from backing into the atria. True or False

____________ prevent blood from flowing back into the heart as it leaves the heart for the lungs (pulmonary semilunar valve) or for the rest of the body (aortic semilunar valve).

____________ is precipitated by infection with group A, β-hemolytic strains of Streptococcus pyogenes The ultimate result is damage to valves of the heart, most commonly the bicuspid and aortic semilunar valves.

The flow of blood through the many vessels that pierce the myocardium of the heart is called the _________ ; it delivers oxygenated blood and nutrients to the myocardium and removes carbon dioxide and wastes from it.

The principle arteries, branching from the ascending aorta and carrying oxygenated blood, are the right and left coronary arteries; deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium primarily via the principal vein, the __________. .

Most heart problems results from faulty coronary circulation due to blood clots, fatty atherosclerotic plaques, or spasm of the smooth muscle in coronary artery walls. Complications of this system include angina pectoris (severe pain that accompanies reduced blood flow, or ischemia, to the myocardium) and myocardial infarction (MI, or heart attack, in which there is death of an area of the myocardium due to an interruption of the blood supply; it may result from a thrombus or embolus). True or False

Whenever a disease or injury deprives a tissue of oxygen, reestablishing the blood flow (reperfusion) may damage the tissue further due to the formation of oxygen free radicals; these can destabilize the molecular structure of proteins, neurotransmitters, nucleic acids, and phospholipids of plasma membranes. True or False

An ___________ may be used to restore cardiac rhythm due to disruption of some component of the conduction system.

A recording of the electrical changes that accompany each cardiac cycle (heartbeat) is called an?

Who developed the electrocardiogram? And when?

A normal ECG consists of a P wave (atrial depolarization – spread of impulse from SA node over atria), QRS complex (ventricular depolarization – spread of impulse through ventricles), and T wave (ventricular repolarization). True or False

A normal ECG consists of a?

The __________ represents the conduction time from the beginning of atrial excitation to the beginning of ventricular excitation.

Full ventricular depolarization/plateau of the ventricles

The _________ represents the time when ventricular contractile fibers are fully depolarized, during the plateau phase of the impulse.

The ECG is invaluable in diagnosing abnormal cardiac rhythms and conduction patterns and following the course of recovery from a heart attack.

A __________ consists of the systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of both atria, rapidly followed by the systole and diastole of both ventricles.

The phases of the cardiac cycle are?

With an average heart rate of 75 beats/min, a complete cardiac cycle requires 0.8 sec. True or False

A ___________ is an abnormal sound that consists of a flow noise that is heard before, between, or after the lubb-dupp or that may mask the normal sounds entirely. Some murmurs are caused by turbulent blood flow around valves due to abnormal anatomy or increased volume of flow.

The act of listening to sounds within the body is called? And is usually done with a stethoscope.

The sound of a heartbeat comes primarily from the turbulence in blood flow caused by the closure of the valves, not from the contraction of the heart muscle. True or False

1. The first heart sound (S1 – lubb) is created by blood turbulence associated with the closing of the atrioventricular valves soon after ventricular systole begins.
2. The second heart sound (S2 – dupp) represents the closing of the semilunar valves close to the end of ventricular systole.

1. A heart murmur is an abnormal sound that consists of a flow noise that is heard before, between, or after the lubb-dupp or that may mask the normal sounds entirely. Some murmurs are caused by turbulent blood flow around valves due to abnormal anatomy or increased volume of flow.

1. Not all murmurs are abnormal or symptomatic, but most indicate a valve disorder.
2. Among the valvular disorders that may contribute to murmurs are mitral stenosis, mitral insufficiency, aortic stenosis, aortic insufficiency, and mitral valve prolapse (MVP).

___________ is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle (or right ventricle) into the aorta (or pulmonary trunk) per minute. It is calculated as follows:

CO = stroke volume x beats per minute

Is the amount of blood ejected by a ventricle during each systole.

Stroke volume depends on how much blood enters a ventricle during diastole, that is, the stretch on the heart before it contracts (end-diastolic volume, or EDV, also called preload), and how much blood is left in a ventricle following its systole (end-systolic volume, or ESV). EDV averages 120-130 ml and SV is about 70 ml; ESV, then is approximately 50-60 ml.

Stroke volume also is related to contractility (forcefulness of contraction at any given time) and afterload (pressure that must be exceeded before ventricular ejection can begin); factors that increase the stroke volume or heart rate tend to increase CO and vice versa.

_________ is the ratio between the maximum cardiac output a person can achieve and the cardiac output at rest.

According to the Frank-Startling law of the heart, a greater preload (stretch) on cardiac muscle fibers just before they contract increases their force of contraction during systole. True or False

A greater preload (stretch) on cardiac muscle fibers just before they contract increases their force of contraction during systole. What is this called?

This results when the heart cannot supply the oxygen demands of the body; it is characterized by diminished blood flow to the various tissues of the body and by accumulation of excess blood in the various organs because the heart is unable to pump out the blood returned to it by the great veins. Causes include chronic hypertension and myocardial infarction (heart attack). What is this called?

Cardiac output does not depends on heart rate as well as stroke volume. True or False

1. Nervous system control of the cardiovascular system stems from the cardiovascular center in the medulla.
   1. Sympathetic impulses increase heart rate and force of contraction; parasympathetic impulses decrease heart rate.
   2. Baroreceptors (pressure receptors) are nerve cells that respond to changes in blood pressure and relay the information to the cardiovascular center; important baroreceptors are located in the arch of the aorta and carotid arteries.

1. Heart rate is also affected by hormones (epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroid hormones), ions (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺), age, gender, physical fitness, and temperature.

Help for Failing Hearts

1. Although a variety of drugs are helpful in the earlier stages of heart disease, at some point they are no longer effective because there is too little functional cardiac muscle left.

Researchers are investigating a wide variety of devices and techniques to aid a failing heart, including heart transplants, artificial hearts, and cardiac assist devices

___________ in heart disease that can be modified include high blood cholesterol level, high blood pressure cigarette smoking, obesity, and lack of regular exercise. Other factors include diabetes mellitus; genetic predisposition; male gender; high blood levels of fibrinogen, renin, and uric acid; and left ventricular hypertrophy.

An __________ is an abnormality or irregularity in the heart rhythm resulting from a disturbance in the conduction system of the heart; due either to faulty production of electrical impulses or to poor conduction of impulses as they pass through the system.

1. Examples of arrhythmias include heart block (most commonly atrioventricular block, flutter, fibrillation (atrial and ventricular), and premature ventricular contraction (PVC).
   1. Some are caused by the effects of such factors as caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, anxiety, certain drugs, hyperthyroidism, potassium deficiency, and certain heart diseases.
   2. Most can be controlled if detected and treated early enough.

1. Coronary artery disease (CAD), or coronary heart disease (CHD), is a condition in which the heart muscle receives an inadequate amount of blood due to obstruction of its blood supply. It is the leading cause of death in the United States each year. The principal causes of narrowing include atherosclerosis, coronary artery spasm, or a clot in a coronary artery.

___________ is a process in which smooth muscle cells proliferate and fatty substances especially cholesterol and triglycerides (neural fats), accumulate in the walls of medium-sized and large arteries in response to certain stimuli, such as endothelial damage.

1. Treatment of coronary artery disease varies with the nature and urgency of symptoms. Among the treatment options are drug therapy (nitroglycerin, beta blockers, and thrombolytic agents) and various surgical and nonsurgical procedures. Examples include coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), percutaneous balloon valvuloplasty, laser angioplasty, balloon-laser welding, and catheter artherectomy.

_________ is a condition in which the smooth muscle of a coronary artery undergoes a sudden contraction, resulting in narrowing of a blood vessel.

A congenital defect is a defect that exists at birth, and usually before birth. True or False

1. PLASMA LIPIDS AND HEART DISEASE
2. A strong risk factor for developing heart disease is high blood cholesterol level. The reason is that high blood cholesterol promotes growth of fatty plaques that build up in the walls of arteries.
3. Most lipids are transported in the blood in combination with proteins as lipoproteins.
4. Three classes of lipoproteins are called low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), high-density lipoproteins (HDLs), and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs).
5. Whereas HDLs remove excess cholesterol from circulation, high levels of LDLs are associated with the formation of fatty plaques in arteries. VLDLs also contribute to increased fatty plaque formation.
6. There are two sources of cholesterol in the body: some is present in foods we ingest, but most is synthesized by the liver.
7. For adults, desirable levels of blood cholesterol are TC (total cholesterol) under 200 mg/dl, LDL 130 mg/dl, and HDL over 40 mg/dl; normally, triglycerides are in the range of 10-190 mg/dl.
8. Among the therapies used to reduce blood cholesterol level are exercise, diet, and drugs.

End of Chapter 20

These are vessels that carry away blood from the heart to the tissues, what are these called?

As the arterioles enter a tissue, they branch into countless microscopic vessels called what?

These vessals carry blood from the tissues back to the heart, what are these called?

These are very small, almost microscopic, arteries that deliver blood to capillaries. What are these called?

An alternate blood route from an anastomosis is called what?

Arteries that do not anastomose are called?

This decreases in the size of the lumen of a blood vessel, what is this called?

This increase in the size of the lumen of a blood vessel, what is this called?

These are microscopic blood vessels through which materials are exchanged between blood and tissue cells. What are these called?

Capillaries usually connect what with each other?

Capillary walls are composed of only a single layer of cells (endothelium) and a basement membrane. True or False

Capillaries branch to form an extensive capillary network throughout the tissue. This network increases the surface area, allowing a rapid exchange of large quantities of materials. True or False

The flow of blood through capillaries is regulated by who??

Rings of smooth muscle fibers (cells) called _________ regulate blood flow through true capillaries.

Some capillaries are continuous, whereas others are fenestrated. True or False

Microscopic blood vessels in organs such as the liver, spleen, and bone marrow are called _________ ;they are wider than capillaries, more tortuous, and specialized for the functions of the specific organs.

These are small vessels that are formed from the union of several capillaries; venules merge to form veins. They drain blood from capillaries into veins.

What is this called?

Thses consist of the same three tunics as arteries but have a thinner tunica interna and media and a thicker tunica externa; they have less elastic tissue and smooth muscle and are therefore thinner-walled than arteries. What are these called?

Vascular (venous) sinuses are veins with very thin walls with no smooth muscle to alter their diameters. Examples are the brain’s superior sagittal sinus and the coronary sinus of the heart. True or False

At rest, the largest portion of the blood volume is in systemic veins and venules, collectively called?

-They store blood and, through venous vasoconstriction, can move blood to other parts of the body if the need arises.

-In cases of hemorrhage, when blood pressure and volume decrease, vasoconstriction of veins in venous reservoirs helps to compensate for the blood loss.

The principal reservoirs are the veins of the abdominal organs (liver and spleen) and skin. True or False

1. HEMODYNAMICS: PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION
2. Velocity of Blood Flow
3. The volume of blood that flows through any tissue in a given period of time is blood flow.
4. The velocity of blood flow is inversely related to the cross-sectional area of blood vessels; blood flows most slowly where cross-sectional area is the greatest.
5. Blood flow decreases from the aorta to arteries to capillaries and increases as it returns to the heart.
6. Volume of Blood Flow
7. Blood flow is determined by blood pressure and resistance.
8. Blood flows from regions of higher to lower pressure; the higher the resistance the lower the blood flow.
9. Cardiac Output (CO) equals mean aortic blood pressure (MABP) divided by total resistance

(R): (CO = MABP / R)

This is the pressure exerted on the walls of a blood vessel; in clinical use, BP refers to pressure in arteries. What is this called?

Factors that affect blood pressure include?

As blood leaves the aorta and flows through systemic circulation, its pressure progressively falls to 0 mmHg by the time it reaches the right atrium. True or False

_________ refers to the opposition to blood flow as a result of friction between blood and the walls of the blood vessels.

Resistance depends on what?

This refers to all of the vascular resistances offered by systemic blood vessels; most resistance is in arterioles, capillaries, and venules due to their small diameters. What is this called?

Also known as total peripheral resistance.

The near equilibrium at the arterial and venous ends of a capillary by which fluids exit and enter is called?

Occasionally, the balance of filtration and reabsorption between interstitial fluid and plasma is disrupted, allowing an abnormal increase in interstitial fluid called?

These are all factors that come from what

1. Increased blood hydrostatic pressure in capillaries due to an increase in venous pressure.
2. Decreased concentration of plasma proteins that lower blood colloid osmotic pressure.
3. Increased permeability of capillaries, allowing greater amounts of plasma proteins to leave the blood and enter tissue fluid.
4. Increased extracellular fluid volume as a result of fluid retention.
5. Blockage of lymphatic vessels postoperatively or due to filarial worm infection.

A number of factors aid ________ , the volume of blood flowing back to the heart from the systemic veins, by increasing the magnitude of the pressure gradient between the venules and the right atrium. Blood return to the heart is maintained by several factors, including skeletal muscular contractions, valves in veins (especially in the extremities), and pressure changes associated with breathing.

Fill in the blank.

1. The ____________ is a group of neurons in the medulla that regulates heart rate, contractility, and blood vessel diameter.
2. The CV center receives input from higher brain regions and sensory receptors (baroreceptors and chemoreceptors).
3. Output from the CV center flows along sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers.

Output from the CV center flows along sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers. Sympathetic impulses along ____________ increase heart rate and contractility. Parasympathetic impulses from vagus (X) nerves decrease heart rate.

Parasympathetic impulses from _________ decrease heart rate.

The sympathetic division also continually sends impulses to smooth muscle in blood vessel walls via ___________. The result is a moderate state of tonic contraction or vasoconstriction, called __________.

These are important pressure-sensitive sensory neurons that monitor stretching of the walls of blood vessels and the atria. What is this called?

1. The _____________ is concerned with maintaining normal blood pressure in the brain and is initiated by baroreceptors in the wall of the carotid sinus.

The cardiac sinus reflex is concerned with maintaining normal blood pressure in the brain and is initiated by baroreceptors in the wall of the carotid sinus. True or False

The ___________ is concerned with general systemic blood pressure and is initiated by baroreceptors in the wall of the arch of the aorta or attached to the arch.

The aortic reflex is not concerned with general systemic blood pressure and is initiated by baroreceptors in the wall of the arch of the aorta or attached to the arch. True or False

If blood pressure falls, the baroreceptor reflexes accelerate heart rate, increase __________, and promote vasoconstriction.

The right heart (atrial) reflex responds to increases in venous blood pressure and is initiated by baroreceptors in the right atrium and venae cavae. True or False

The __________ responds to increases in venous blood pressure and is initiated by baroreceptors in the right atrium and venae cavae.

Receptors sensitive to chemicals are called?

-They monitor blood levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion concentration.

This refers to local, automatic adjustments of blood flow in a given region to match the particular needs of the tissue. What is this called?

What is the principle element not a direct stimulus for autoregulation?

__________, or faint, refers to a sudden, temporary loss of consciousness followed by spontaneous recovery. It is most commonly due to cerebral ischemia (lack of sufficient blood flow).

_________ is an inadequate cardiac output that results in failure of the cardiovascular system to deliver adequate amounts of oxygen and nutrients to meet the metabolic needs of body cells. As a result, cellular membranes dysfunction, cellular metabolism is abnormal, and cellular death may eventually occur without proper treatment.

1. Signs and symptoms of shock include clammy, cool, pale skin; tachycardia; weak, rapid pulse; sweating; hypotension (systemic pressure < 90 mmHg); altered mental status; decreased urinary output; thirst; and acidosis.

Stages of shock are all characterized by inadequate perfusion of tissues. True or False

This refers to decreased blood volume resulting from loss of blood or plasma due to acute hemorrhage or excessive fluid loss (as in excess vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, dehydration, urine production, and burns). What is this called?

The development of shock occurs in three principal stages, what are they?

Shock, in which negative feedback systems restore homeostasis. What stage is this called?

1. If the initiating cause does not get any worse, a full recovery follows.
2. Compensatory adjustments include activation of the sympathetic division of the ANS, the renin-angiotension pathway, release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and release of vasodilator factors in response to hypoxia.

In which positive feedback cycles intensify the shock and immediate medical intervention is required. What stage is this called?

1. It occurs when there has been a reduction in blood volume of 15-25%.
2. Among the positive feedback cycles that contribute to decreased cardiac output and blood pressure are depression of cardiac activity, depression of vasoconstriction, increased permeability of capillaries, intravascular clotting, cellular destruction, and acidosis.

This is rapid deterioration of the cardiovascular system that cannot be helped by compensatory mechanisms or medical intervention. What stage is this?

___________ is the alternate expansion and elastic recoil of an artery wall with each heartbeat. It may be felt in any artery that lies near the surface or over a hard tissue, and is strongest in the arteries closest to the heart; the radial artery is most commonly used to feel the pulse.

A normal resting pulse (heart) rate is?

Means a rapid resting heart or pulse rate (> 100 beats/min).

Indicates a slow resting heart or pulse rate (< 60 beats/min).

Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by blood on the wall of an artery when the left ventricle undergoes systole and then diastole. It is measured by the use of a ____________ usually in one of the brachial arteries.

__________ is the force of blood recorded during ventricular contraction.

________ is the force of blood recorded during ventricular relaxation.

The various sounds that are heard while taking blood pressure are called?

The normal blood pressure of a young adult male is 120/80 mmHg (8-10 mmHg less in a young adult female). The range of average values varies with many factors. True or False

This is the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure. It normally is about 40 mmHg and provides information about the condition of the arteries. What is this called?

The blood vessels are organized into parallel routes that deliver blood throughout the body. True or False

The largest circulatory route is the?

Two of the several subdivisions of the systemic circulation are coronary (cardiac) circulation, which supplies the myocardium of the heart; the cerebral circulation, which supplies the brain; and the hepatic portal circulation, which extends from the gastrointestinal tract to the liver.

Other routes include pulmonary circulation and fetal circulation.

The ______________ takes oxygenated blood from the left ventricle through the aorta to all parts of the body, including some lung tissue (but does not supply the air sacs of the lungs) and returns the deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.

1. The aorta is divided into the ascending aorta, arch of the aorta, and the descending aorta.
2. Each section gives off arteries that branch to supply the whole body.

Blood returns to the heart through the systemic veins. All the veins of the systemic circulation flow into the superior or inferior venae cavae or the coronary sinus, which in turn empty into the right atrium. True or False

The ___________ collects blood from the veins of the pancreas, spleen, stomach, intestines, and gallbladder and directs it into the hepatic portal vein of the liver before it returns to the heart.

A ____________ carries blood between two capillary networks, in this case from capillaries of the

-This circulation enables nutrient utilization and blood detoxification by the liver.

The ___________ takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the air sacs of the lungs and returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

-It allows blood to be oxygenated for systemic circulation.

The ___________ involves the exchange of materials between fetus and mother.

___________ or high blood pressure, is the most common disease affecting the heart and blood vessels. It is classified as primary (essential) or secondary.

________________________ (approximately 90-95% of all hypertension cases) is a persistently elevated blood pressure that cannot be attributed to any particular organic cause.

Only _____________ has causes that are identifiable. Two of these are kidney disease and adrenal hypersecretion.

An __________ is a thin, weakened section on the wall of an artery or a vein that bulges outward, forming a balloon-like sac of the blood vessel. Left untreated, it may burst, causing massive hemorrhage with shock, severe pain, cardiovascular accident (CVA, or stroke), or death. Some may be surgically repaired.

______________ is a condition in which the heart muscle receives inadequate oxygen due to blockage of its blood flow. It may be caused by atherosclerosis, coronary artery spasm, and other factors.

______________ is a blood clot (thrombus) in a deep vein, especially in the lower extremities. It has two serious complications: pulmonary embolism and postphlebitic syndrome.