Romanesque
An architectural style prominent in Europe from the late 10th to the 12th century, characterized by round arches, thick walls, large towers, and barrel vaults.
Gothic Architecture
An architectural style that flourished in Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages (mid-12th to 16th centuries), known for pointed arches, ribbed vaults, flying buttresses, and large stained-glass windows.
Henry II
King of England (1154–1189) and the founder of the Angevin Empire. He is most famous for strengthening royal authority, expanding the royal courts, and developing Common Law.
Common Law
The body of English law derived from judicial decisions and customs, rather than from statutes. It was established and unified across the kingdom largely through the reforms of Henry II.
Magna Carta
(Great Charter) A document agreed to by King John of England in 1215 that limited the power of the monarch and established the principle that even the king was subject to the law.
Philip II (Philip Augustus)
King of France (1180–1223) who significantly expanded French royal territory and power at the expense of the English kings (especially the Angevin Empire).
Frederick I (Barbarossa)
Holy Roman Emperor (1155–1190) who attempted to consolidate power in both Germany and Italy but was often in conflict with the Papacy and the northern Italian city-states.
Troubadours/trobairitz
Poet-musicians (male/female, respectively) from southern France who composed and performed lyrical poetry, primarily focusing on themes of courtly love (fin'amor) during the 11th to 13th centuries.
Chansons de Geste
(Songs of heroic deeds) Epic poems of the Early Middle Ages, written in Old French, recounting heroic stories, especially those associated with Charlemagne and his knights.
Chivalry
An informal, varying code of conduct developed in the late Middle Ages, associated with the medieval institution of knighthood, emphasizing honor, bravery, loyalty, courtesy, and protection of the weak.
Franciscans
A mendicant (begging) Catholic religious order founded by St. Francis of Assisi in the early 13th century, focused on poverty, humility, and ministry to the poor.
Fourth Crusade
A military expedition (1202–1204) originally intended to conquer Jerusalem, but which was diverted by Venetian and political interests, leading to the sack of the Christian city of Constantinople (1204).