Anatomy and physiology are absolutely interrelated subjects in which...

Structures at all levels are defined and also used to understand the dynamic function of a living organism

Specialized systems within the body support each other’s operation so that...

Complex responses are possible to a myriad of changing environmental conditions

The skin provides protection and vitamin D for the skeletal system, which in turn...

Provides structural support, calcium storage, and blood cells for the skin

The definition of anatomy

The study of structure and the relationships among structures

Subdivisions of anatomy

Surface anatomy, gross anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, radiographic anatomy, developmental anatomy, embryology, cytology, and pathological anatomy

The definition of physiology

The study of how body structures function

Subdivisions of physiology

Cell physiology, systems physiology, pathophysiology, exercise physiology, neurophysiology, endocrinology, cardiovascular physiology, immunophysiology, respiratory physiology, renal physiology, and reproductive physiology

The human body consist of these several levels of structural organizations

Cells, Tissues, Organs, Systems, and Organism

Cells

Basic structural and functional units of a living organism

Tissues

Groups of similarly specialized cells and the substance surrounding them that usually arise from a common ancestor and perform certain special functions

Organs

Structures of definite form that are composed of two or more different tissues and have specific functions

Systems

Associations of organs that have a common function

Human Organism

Collection of structurally and functionally integrated systems

The systems of the human body

Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive

Life processes in humans

Metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction

Metabolism

Sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body, including catabolism and anabolism

Ex. Blood work

Responsiveness

Ability to detect and respond to changes in the external or internal environment

Movement

Motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, or even organelles inside cells

Growth

Increase in size and complexity, due to an increase in the number of cells, size of cells, or both

Differentiation

Change in a cell from an unspecialized state to a specialized state

Ex. Cells come of of mitosis and do what they are specialized to do depending on the type of DNA

Reproduction

The formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement (Mitosis), or to the production of a new individual

The definition of homeostasis

Condition in which the body's internal environment remains within certain physiological limits

Fluid outside body cells

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

Extracellular fluid (EFC) is found in

Filling the narrow spaces between cells or in blood/lymphatic vessels

Extracellular fluid (ECF) filling the narrow spaces between cells of tissue

Interstitial fluid, intercellular fluid, or tissue fluid

Extracellular fluid (ECF) in blood vessels

Plasma

Extracellular fluid (ECF) in lymphatic vessels

Lymph

Fluid within cells

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

Because extracellular fluid (ECF) is in constant motion throughout the body and also surrounds all body cells

Body's internal environment

An organism is said to be in homeostasis when its internal environment:

Contains the optimum concentration of gases, nutrients, ions, and water; has an optimal temperature (100.4 ^oF), and has an optimal volume for the health of the cells

Stress

Any external or internal stimulus that creates and imbalance in the internal environment

If a stress acts on the body, homeostatic mechanisms attempt to

Counteract the effects of the stress and bring the condition back to normal

Homeostasis is regulated by

The nervous and endocrine systems acting together or independently

In order to regulate homeostasis, the nervous system

Detects body changes and sends nerve impulses to counteract the stress

In order to regulate homeostasis, the endocrine system

Secretes hormones

Nerve impulses cause _____ changes, while hormones work more _____.

Rapid; Slowly

Feedback system (loop)

A cycle of events in which information about the status of a condition is continually monitored and fed back (reported) to a central control region

Any stress that changes a controlled condition

Stimulus

Three basic components in a feedback system

Control center, receptor, and effector

Control center

Determines that point at which a controlled condition should be maintained

Receptor

Monitors changes in the controlled condition and then sends the information, called the input, to the control center

Effector

Receives information, called the output, from the control center and produces a response (effect)

Will always include muscle response

If a response reverses the original stimulus; Maintain conditions that require frequent monitoring and adjustment within physiological limits

The definition of negative feedback system (loop)

If a response enhances the original stimulus; Regulate conditions that do not occur often and do not require continual fine-tuning

The definition of positive feedback system (loop)

Example of negative feedback

Homeostasis of Blood Pressure

Example of positive feedback

Labor contractions

Disruptions of homeostasis can lead to

Disease or death

Disease

Any change from a state of health, characterized by symptom or sign

Local disease

One that affects one part or a limited area of the body

Systemic disease

Affects either the entire body or several parts of the body

Symptoms

Subjective changes in the body functions that are not apparent to an observer

Signs

Objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure

Examples of symptoms

Pain, nausea, sensitivity, dizziness, weakness

Examples of signs

Discoloration, O2, HR, BP, fever, rash

Diagnosis

Art of distinguishing one disease from another or determining the nature of a disease generally after taking of a medical history and the administration of a physical examination

Use of anatomical position

Standardized method of observing or imagining the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical references

Description of anatomical postition

The subject stands erect facing the observer, the upper extremities are places at the sides, the palms of the hands are turned forward, and the feet are flat on the floor

Regional names

Terms given to specific regions of the body for reference

Examples of regional names

Cranial (skull), thoracic (chest), bracial ( arm), patellar (knee), cephalic (head) and gluteal (buttock)

Directional terms

Used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another and to reduce length of explanations

Examples of directional terms

Dorsal, superior, inferior, medial, and distal

Planes

Imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body or organs into definite areas

Principal planes

Midsagittal (median) and parasagittal, frontal (coronal), and transverse (cross-sectional or horizontal)

Sections

Flat surfaces resulting from cuts through body structures; named according to the plane on which the cut is made

Body cavities

Spaces in the body that contain internal organs

6 ventral. 2 dorsal.

Body cavities are separated by these structures

Muscles, bones, or ligaments

The two principal body cavities

Dorsal and central cavities

Dorsal cavity is subdivided into

The cranial cavity and the vertebral canal

Cranial cavity contains

The brain

Vertebral canal contains

The spinal cord and beginnings of spinal nerves

The ventral cavity is subdivided by

The diaphragm into an upper thoracic cavity and a lower abdominopelvic cavity

Thoracic cavity contains

Two pleural cavities and the mediastinum, which includes the pericardial cavity

Pleural cavities _____ the lungs, while pericardial cavity _____ the heart

Enclose; surround

Pleural and pericardual cavities are lined by

Serous membranes

Mediastinum

Broad, median partition between the lungs that extends from the sternum to the vertebral column and contains all contents of the thoracic cavity except the lungs

Abdominopelvic cavity

Divided into a superior abdominal and an inferior pelvic cavity

Viscera of the abdominal cavity include

Stomach, spleen, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine

Viscera of the pelvic cavity include

Urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal female and male reproductive structures

The abdominopelvic cavity may divided into _____ regions by drawing ____ imaginary lines

Nine; four

The abdominopelvic cavity may be divided into _____ by passing imaginary horizontal and vertical lines through the umbilicus

Quadrants

Medical imaging

Essentional for diagnosis of many disorders

Commonly used medical imaging techniques

Conventional radiography, computer tomography (CT) scanning, dynamic spatial reconstruction (DSR), digital subtraction angiography (DSA), fluoroscopy, positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound (US)