Hyaline Cartilage

Provides flexible support and reduces friction

- Between the ribs and sternum

- In the largynx, trachea, and bronchi

- Throughout the immature skeleton before ossification

Elastic Cartilage

Provides flexible support

- External ear (auricle or pinna)

- The auditory canal

- Epiglottis

Fibrous Cartilage

Resists compression and absorbs shock; very strong

- Tissue-to-bone attachments

- The intervertebral discs (annulus fibrous)

- The menisci of the knee

- Pubic symphysis

Skeletal muscles

Attached to our bones and pulls on those bones to create movement

- These muscles are voluntarily contracted

Cardiac Muscles

Found within the cardiovascular system; function pump blood out of our heart

- Involuntarily contracted

- Cardiac muscles undergo rhythmic contractions

Smooth Muscle

Also involuntarily contracted

- Found throughout the digestive tract and in some other internal systems, such as the cardiovascular system

- Functions to push fluids and solids through those systems

Origin

The point of muscle attachment to the stationary bone

Insertion

The point of muscle attachment to the mobile bone

Action

The movement produced by the muscle upon contraction

Innervation

The specific motor nerve that controls the muscle

Agonist

(prime mover): the muscle primarily responsible for movement

Antagonist

The muscle that performs the opposite action of the agonist

Synergist

A muscle that assists the prime mover in performing an action

Fixator

Agonist and antagonist muscles that contract at the same time to stabilize a joint

Stabilizers

Muscles that stabilize a region to provide a secure base for limb movement

Compact bone

Dense and solid; it forms the outer layer of bones; conducts stress from one end of the long bone to the other

Compact Bone makeup

Osteon: functional unit

Osteocytes are arranged in concentric circles called lamellae

Canaliculi: channels between the lacuna and blood vessels that lead out to the surface of the osteon

Periosteum: layer of dense irregular connective tissue that covers the bone

Spongy Bone

A lighter, lattice-like structure found deep inside bones

- Resists stress applied from many different directions

Osteoclasts

Secrete acids that dissolve bones in a process called osteolysis

Osteoblasts

Immature bone cells

Disolaction

Displacement of an articulating bone; temporarily deforms and immobilizes the joint

Basic components of synovial joints

Joint capsule, articular cartilages, joint cavity (with synovial fluid), accessory structures (ligaments, tendons), synovial membrane, sensory nerves, blood vessels

Types of movement of synovial joints

Angular, rotation, special movements

Angular motion

Abduction (away from body), Adduction (towards body), flexion (decrease angle between bones of joint), extension, hyperextension, circumduction

Rotation

Left and right rotation ("no"), medial (internal) and lateral (external) rotation, pronation and supination (anatomical position = hands in supinated position; pronated position = palms face posterior/downward)

Special movements

Inversion: ankle medial; eversion ankle lateral

Dorsiflexion: flexing ankle; plantar: point position

Lateral flexion:

- Cervical lateral flexion: tilting head to shoulder

- Thoracic lateral flexion

Protraction: anterior movement of bone; retraction: posterior movement of bone

Opposition/reposition

Elevation/Depression

Relationship between strength and mobility (synovial joint)

A highly mobile joint (synovial) is not very strong

Limited mobility reduces the chance of injury

Seven types of bones

Sutural

Pneumatized

Flat

Long

Sesamoid

Short

Irregular

Sutural Bones

Small bones found in sutures

-Found between the flat bones of the skull

- Not everyone has them

Pneumatized bone

Contain hollow/open cells that allow for air flow

- In sinuses

Flat Bones

Strong, lightweight bones protecting organs

- Compact with a layer of spongy bones

- Where most red bone marrow is stored

- Skull, ribs

Long bones

Contain a diaphysis, a medullary cavity, two epiphysis, two metaphysis

- In arms and legs (upper and lower extremities)

Sesamoid bones

Found mostly near joints at the knee, hands, and feet

- Few individuals have sesamoid bones at every possible location, but everyone has a sesamoid patellae (kneecap)

Short Bones

Box-like bones

- Primarily carpal bones (wrists) and tarsal bones (ankles)

- Covered by compact bone; interior contains spongy bone

Irregular bones

Complexly shaped bones

- Ex: Vertebrae

Cranial Bones

Occipatial

Parietal

Frontal

Temporal

Ethmoid

Sphenoid

Facial Bones

Vomer

Conchae

Nasal

Maxillae

Mandible

Palatine

Zygomatic

Lacrimal

Vomer

Forms the inferior portion of the nasal septum

Conchae

One on each side of the nasal septum; attached to the lateral wall of the nasal cavity

Maxillae

Anterior part of the hard palate (roof of the mouth)

Mandible

Temporomandibular joint meets with the temporal bone

- Sliding hinge joint that allows the mandible to protract and retract so it can slide forward and back & depress and elevate

One joint functionally, two different articulation points

Palatine

Posterior part of the hard palate

Zygomatic

Articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to form the zygomatic arch

Cranial sutures

Coronal: between parietal and frontal

Sagittal: between parietal bones

Lamboid: between parietal and occipital

Squamous: between temporal and parietal

Bony Nasal Septum

Anterior nostrils

Posterior nasal apertures

Nasal septum (vomer & perpendicular plate of the ethmoid)

Nasal wall (nasal conchae: superior, middle, inferior)

Optic Orbit

Frontal bone: roof

Maxilla bone: floor

Lacrimal and ethmoid: medial wall

Sphenoid bone: posterior wall

Zygomatic: lateral wall

Lacrimal gland: produces tears

Paranasal sinuses

Air-filled chambers that open into the nasal cavity

- Frontal sinuses

- Ethmoid air cells

- Sphenoidal sinuses

- Maxillary sinuses

Hyoid bone

Sitting deep within the neck

Free-floating; doesn't articulate with any other bones (and therefore extremely mobile)

Serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments

- This complex network of muscle and ligaments suspends the hyoid bone, holding it in place and allowing it to move freely

Parts: Greater and lesser horns

C1

Atlas

- Lacks a vertebral body

- Supports the skull at the atlanto-occipital joining, enabling nodding "

C2

Axis

- The axis features the odontoid process, or dens, which projects superiorly into the atlas and allows for rotation "no" motions

- C1 rotates on C2 on the dens

- The transverse ligament binds the dens to the atlas

The C1-C2 articulation is a pivot join, unlike the gliding facet joints found throughout most of the spine

Movements available throughout cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine

Cervical: flexion, extension, lateral flexion, rotation

- Greatest mobility occurs between C3 and C7

Thoracic: The spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae are sharply angled inferiorly, which limits extension in this region

- Less mobile than cervical or lumbar, partly due to the rigid rib cage and the orientation of their costal facets

Lumbar: articular facets allow for flexion, extension, and lateral flexion, but restrict rotation

Curves of the spine

Curvatures distribute mechanical stress during movement and standing

Maintain balance with help from muscle attachment to various vertebral processes

Provide room for organs within the thoracic and abdominal cavities

Cervical (anterior), thoracic (posterior), lumbar (anterior), sacral (posterior)

Spinal meninges

Layers of connective tissue membranes that protect the brain and spinal cord

Dura Mater, Arachnoid Mater, Pia Mater

Dura Mater

The tough, outermost layer that stabilizes the spinal cord

Arachnoid Mater

The middle, web-like layer that lines the dura mater

Pia Mater

The innermost, delicate layer that is bound directly to the neural tissue

Posterior horns

Posterior (dorsal) horns: contains somatic and visceral sensory nuclei that receive incoming afferent information

Lateral horns

Contains visceral motor nuclei that sends efferent signals to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

Anterior horns

Anterior (ventral) horns: Contains somatic motor nuclei that send efferent signals to skeletal muscle