Testosterone is a ___________ molecule

steroid

Testosterone is converted to _______________ in the prostate.

Trihydrotestosterone

Males adults have been observed to make ________________ sperm daily.

90,000

Testosterone is responsible for all of the development of the male secondary sex

characteristcs below EXCEPT

dry skin

The length of the ovarian cycle is dependent on

follicular phase

What are the gametes called in females AND males

ova and sperm

What is it called when one male and one female gamete combine?

Zygote

Testosterone is considered what type of molecule?

Steroid molecule

Why does oogoniums being a diploid mean

It means that they have two of each chromosome similar to all other cells

Where do sperm cells gain motility in?

They gain motility in the epididymis

What is the difference between oogenesis and spermatogenesis?

Oogenesis has a higher error rate in chromosome numbers.

Which of the following is true about the functional gametes in oogenesis and spermatogenesis?

They both come from a single cell.

What causes the difference in error rate between oogenesis and spermatogenesis

The age of the active reproductive cell varies in oogenesis

How does the number of chromosomes differ in gametes produced by oogenesis compared to spermatogenesis?

There is no difference in chromosome numbers in the gametes

What is the difference in number of functional gametes between oogenesis and spermatogenesis

Oogenesis produces one functional ovum per cycle

Which of the following statements about body water content is TRUE?

Adult males generally have a higher percentage of body water than females due to greater muscle mass.

Which of the following best explains how changes in extracellular fluid osmolality affect cellular water movement?

A hypertonic extracellular environment causes water to leave the cell due to a higher solute concentration outside

Which of the following best describes the role of feedback mechanisms in regulating ADH release and water balance

Decreased blood pressure stimulates baroreceptors, leading to increased ADH release and water retention

Which of the following is a possible cause of metabolic acidosis?

Starvation or buildup of acid from exercise

Which of the following symptoms might indicate a potassium imbalance in the body?

Cardiac arrhythmias and a flattened T-wave on an ECG

What defines osmotic power into biological systems and its role in fluid distribution?

The force generated by solutes that pulls water across cell membranes

How does an increase in extracellular fluid osmolality typically affect a cell?

Water flows out of the cell, potentially shrinking it

In terms of water movement, how do cells response differently to hypertonic vs. hypotonic environments?

Water exits in hypertonic and enters in hypotonic environments

What makes electrolytes like NaCl more effective in driving osmosis than molecules like glucose

Electrolytes split into multiple charged particles in solution

Why might magnesium be recommended as a post-workout supplement

It supports muscle contraction and nerve function

What is the primary reason every human inherits mitochondria only from their mother?

The ovum has more cytoplasm and contains the mitochondria needed for development

What is the role of progesterone in the ovarian and uterine cycles

It maintains the endometrium

What are the three germ layers formed during early embryonic development and their primary derivatives?

Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm; form organs, muscle, and skin

Why is the temperature of the testes slightly lower than the core body temperature?

To support healthy sperm development and prevent heat-induced damage

How does the error rate in gamete formation differ between oogenesis and spermatogenesis

Oogenesis has a higher error rate due to increased meiotic errors over time

Where does fertilization take place?

Fallopian Tubes

What is testosterone

A steroid molecule that is responsible for the development of the male reproductive system

Why are the testes located outside the body?

To keep the testes cooler than normal body temperature

What happens when there is triploidy, a genetic condition where a cell has three sets of chromosomes?

Miscarriage + Apoptosis

What are the male secondary sex characteristics?

Increased muscle mass + increased libido

Which process has a higher error rate of number of chromosomes?

Oogenesis

What is the functional unit of the ovary

Ovarian Follicle

How many days does the typical ovarian cycle last?

28 days

Which layer of the uterus is shed during the menstrual phase

Endometrium

What cancer is the second most common cause of cancer death in US women?

Breast cancer

What is the process of the development of male sex cells called?

Spermatogenesis

What contributes to proper sperm formation in males?

proper testosterone + stress levels + genetics

What is the process of spermatogenesis

Spermatogonium cells (2n) give rise to primary spermatocytes (2n) and mature sperm cells develop through meiosis I & II

Why is it important for sperm cells to gain motility within the epididymis

Non-motile sperm do not reach the fallopian tubes

How many germ layers does embryonic development have at 10 days and then at 16 days

2, 3

How does the male hormone testosterone affect physical development?

Increases bone density and muscle mass

How does the pathway of the female’s gamete dispersal compare to the male’s gamete dispersal?

The female’s gamete dispersal is shorter than that of the male

Why is the length of the ovarian cycle largely dependent on the follicular phase instead of the luteal phase?

The length of the luteal phase is always 14 days from ovulation to the end of the cycle

Why does the endometrium lining of the uterus shed if there is no embryo implantation

If there is not embryonic implantation, then the second gonadotropin hormone human chorionic gonadotropin is not released and thus the corpus luteum degenerates, leading to plummeting progesterone levels

How do primary oocytes, secondary oocytes, and ova structures differ?

Primary oocytes and secondary oocytes are diploid but mature ova are haploid

How long is a typical ovarian cycle

28 days

Which of the following is not a phase of the uterine cycle

Follicular phase

At what stage is meiosis II completed?

Fertilization

Breast Cancer occurs in what percent of women?

13%

Which hormone is not involved in the ovarian and uterine cycles?

TSH

Which electrolytes deficiency may cause cardiac arrhythmias or flattened T- wave on ECG?

Potassium

If a person has Cotton mouth and dry skin and is experiencing weight loss and fever with mental confusion. What state may they be at?

Maybe experiencing dehydration

Which IV treatment is needed for a patient that is in a hypotonic hydration state

Hypertonic solution

How much increase in osmolality is needed for osmoreceptors to be activated in the hypothalamus?

1 or 2%

Why is the osmotic power of electrolytes greater than nonelectrolytes?

In electrolytes, the independent ions may disassociate into several components

How many stages do follicles go through during development

3

Explain the pathway of female gamete dispersal?

Oocyte from the ovary to the fallopian tube

How many and what are the cycles of the Uterine Cycle

3: menstrual, proliferative, secretory

How much of the population of women with breast cancer get mutated genes?

10%

What can a low level of testosterone lead to?

Atrophy is accessory organs, decrease of semen volume,

erection/ejaculation are impaired.

Which of these is NOT a phase of the uterine cycle?

Maturation

What happens during the first phase of the uterine cycle?

Shedding of endometrium

Oogoniums are _________

Diploid (2n)

Where is the oocyte housed with the ovary?

Follicles

How many phases are there in the ovarian cycle?

Two

What causes the follicle to rupture (ovulation)?

FSH + LH

What is a known risk factor of breast cancer

a. Early onset of menstruation

b. No pregnancies

c. lack of or short periods of breast feeding

What hormone maintains the corpus luteum after embryo implantation?

Human chorionic gonadotropin

Explain what the role of testosterone in males.

a. Development of male reproductive system

b. Enchancing body hair growth

c. Spermagenesis

What is the ploidy of a mature ovum?

Haploid (1n)

Which of the following accurately describes a difference between oogenesis and spermatogenesis?

Oogenesis has a higher error rate in chromosome number.

What is the function of ovarian follicles

To house and support the development of an oocyte

To house and support the development of an oocyte

Progesterone

When does the endometrium rebuild itself during the uterine cycle?

Proliferative phase

What is the driving force of the Luteal phase?

Progesterone

How is a zygote formed?

A single sperm cell combines with an ovum in a process called fertilization.

Why must sperm be motile (able to move themselves)?

To travel up to the uterine tubes once inside the vagina

Choose the incorrect statement about female gametes:

A mature ovum is a diploid cell

What female hormone is testosterone converted to in the male brain?

Estradiol/estrogen

What happens in the case of polyspermy (multiple sperm fertilizing a single ovum)?

(Select all correct answers)

Miscarriage + Apoptosis

Why is the female reproductive environment essential for fetal development?

Because it supports gestation and birth by providing a nurturing internal environment

How does the acrosome reaction help prevent polyspermy during fertilization?

It blocks additional sperm from entering the egg once one has fused

Why is sperm motility gained in the epididymis critical for reproduction

Because non-motile sperm cannot reach the fallopian tubes to fertilize the egg

How is estradiol different from testosterone in its role in the body?

Estradiol is the most potent estrogen and influences brain neurons and reproductive tissues

Explain why the luteal phase always lasts 14 days in the ovarian cycle.

Because progesterone released during this phase has a consistent duration across cycles

The interstitial endocrine cells that produce testosterone are located

between the seminiferous tubules

These cells of the seminiferous tubule nourish the spermatids as they develop into sperm.

sustentocytes

In the male, this hormone stimulates endocrine cells to produce testosterone.

LH

The ___________ of the sperm contains enzymes necessary for the penetration of the egg.

acrosome

What is a key characteristic of the human reproductive system?

It functions intermittently

Which follicle stage has a single layer of cuboidal pre-granulosa cells?

Primary

Which phase of the ovarian cycle is influenced by progesterone

Luteal phase

Why are the male testes designed to be cooler than the average body temperature?

Because the heat would interfere with the development of healthy motile sperm

What can a lack of testosterone result in?

Erectile dysfunction, infertility, decreased bone density

What are the two phases in the ovarian cycle?

Follicular Phase, Luteal Phase

What hormone is responsible for male secondary sex characteristics?

Testosterone

What even marks the release of an egg during the ovarian cycle?

Ovulation

What does spermatogenesis go through to produce mature sperm cells?

Meiosis I and II

What is the function of granulosa cells in ovarian follicles?

Form part of the developing follicle around the oocyte

What phase signals growth of follicles in the ovary?

Follicular phase

Which of the following best explains why fertilization is considered a highly selective and regulated process?

It includes checks like the acrosome reaction to prevent polyspermy.

What role does progesterone play immediately after ovulation?

Maintains the uterine lining for potential implantation

In terms of thermoregulation and reproductive success, why are testes located outside the body cavity?

To reduce temperature and support optimal spermatogenesis

A primary oocyte remains arrested in which phase until ovulation?

Prophase I

Which of the following statements about testosterone is false

It decreases libido when elevated

A triploid zygote would most likely result from:

Polyspermy

During which phase of the uterine cycle is the endometrium rebuilt following menstruation?

Proliferative

A secondary follicle is identified by:

Multiple layers of granulosa cells

Why is sperm motility gained in the epididymis critical for successful fertilization?

To travel through the cervix and reach the oocyte

What is the functional significance of the luteal phase always being 14 days?

It helps align the ovarian and uterine cycles

Estrogen rises through what phase of a females cycle?

Follicular

Testosterone is primarily responsible for what male characteristics?

Secondary sex characteristics

What happens during fertilization?

Merging of two gametes

What hormone is signaled to increase to prevent menses once implantation of an embryo occurs?

Progesterone

The secretory phase of the uterine cycle is the uterine cycle is parallel to what phase of the ovarian cycle?

Luteal

NH4 excretion is dependent on the breakdown of what?

Glutamine

What is NOT a cause of Metabolic acidosis

Excessive water consumption

What would NOT be the result of acidosis

Increased appetite

What is NOT a risk factor for Breast Cancer?

Age

What is the first stage of menses

Menstrual

What do sodium levels in the blood affect?

Plasma volume, blood pressure, and extracellular fluid volume

Which of the following are true? (multiple select)

Aldosterone plays the biggest role in regulating sodium through the kidneys

RAAS is responsible for releasing aldosterone

How does potassium relate to electrical conduction in the heart?

Potassium affects RMP in excitable cells, reducing excitability

Where does the most important buffer system of the body occur?

Bicarbonate regulation occurs in the kidneys

Which of the following is an indication of metabolic acidosis?

Persistent diarrhea with a pH of 6.71

Muscular cramping, cerebral edema, and possibly death are symptoms of what?

Renal insufficiency

An accumulation of interstitial fluid that can potentially impair tissue function is called what?

Edema

Weight loss, fever, mental confusion, and decrease of electrolytes is caused by what condition?

Dehydration

Obligatory water losses are characterized by insensible water loss from lungs and _______ while sensible water loss from urine, sweat, and ______ is more commonly known.

Skin; feces

Why is dehydration so dangerous to fluid balance in the body?

the excessive loss of water from the extracellular fluid causes cells to shrink from water loss

How does the negative feedback pathway originating with hypothalamic osmoreceptors work?

Hypothalamic receptors sense decreased extracellular fluid osmolality and then inhibits ADH release

How does the negative feedback pathway originating with blood vessel baroreceptors work?

Decreased blood pressure increases ADH levels

Why is sodium important for the body? (Select all that apply)?

Sodium helps maintain our renal acid-base homeostasis + Sodium significantly affects osmotic pressure + Sodium affects extracellular fluid volume and thus affects blood pressure

Why are abnormal levels of potassium dangerous for the body?

Increased levels of potassium decreases the resting membrane potential, causing depolarization and reduced excitability of our cardiac cells

How do the kidneys regulate acid-base homeostasis (select all that apply)?

The kidneys secrete or excrete H+

The kidneys regulate the amount of bicarbonate in the blood

(Paragraph 14) What can cause metabolic acidosis?

Persistent diarrhea

Which buffer system can regulate pH both intracellularly and extracellularly?

Bicarbonate

What substance homeostasis is vital to proper heart function as well as buffer systems?

Potassium

What substance does Renin cleave?

Angiotensinogen

What is the key electrolyte for regulating blood volume and blood pressure?

Sodium

What are considered electrolytes?

Acids, bases, proteins

Which of the following is not a function of the minerals provided by electrolytes?

Cell communication

Which of the following is caused by Calcium deficiencies

Cramps in skeletal muscles

Sodium is greater than what percentage of cations in the extracellular fluid?

90%

Where does the bicarbonate and hydrogen regulation occur in the body

The kidneys

What type of cravings would a person experience if they had an electrolyte deficiency?

Salty or sour foods

What happens to the cells when the patient is dehydrated

Excess loss of water from extracellular fluids causes cells to shrink

Extracellular fluid has decreased concentrations of proteins with what major ions?

Na+ and Cl-

How does a decrease in ADH affect the body

Decrease in body water output

What is the healthy relationship between water intake and output

They should be equal

Which of the following statements about body water content is correct?

Adipose tissue is the least hydrated tissue in the body, contributing to lower body water percentages in females

Which ions are abundant in intracellular fluid?

K+ and HPO4^2-

What happens when extracellular fluid becomes hypertonic?

Water moves out of the cell

Which of the following triggers a decrease in ADH release?

Activation of baroreceptors

Which of the following is an example of obligatory insensible water loss?

Water vapor from lungs

How is “total body water” of extracellular fluid (ECF) divided in the body?

1/3

What does the passive transport mechanism cause hypotonic and hypertonic solutions to do?

Move water in and out of a cell

What regulates water intake and output?

Feedback mechanisms

What is the function of a baroreceptor?

Maintain homeostasis of blood pressure

What does the condition “cotton mouth” cause in a person?

Weight loss

What is osmotic power, and how does it influence water movement in fluid compartments?

The ability of solutes to generate pressure that moves water across membranes

How does extracellular fluid osmolality affect the direction of water movement in and out of cells?

It determines whether water enters or leaves the cell

What is the difference in water movement between hypertonic and hypotonic solutions?

Hypotonic solutions cause water to move into the cell; hypertonic move it out

Why do electrolytes have greater osmotic strength compared to nonelectrolytes?

They disassociate into multiple particles, increasing osmotic effect

What happens when MgCl₂ dissociates in water, and how does this relate to osmotic strength?

It dissociates into three ions, increasing osmotic power

Explain the characteristics of obligatory water loss

Loss from lungs and skin.

Which of these drive cellular water movement?

Osmosis

What is used to counteract renal insufficiency

A hypertonic saline IV

What receptor type that is in the blood vessels that aids with water intake and output?

Baroreceptors

What is the number 1 killer of burns

Dehydration

What hormone plays the biggest role in the regulation of sodium by the kidneys?

Aldosterone

The major buffer system of the body is

a. Bicarbonate

b. Phosphate

c. Protein

Which of these do not cause metabolic acidosis?

Overeating

Which of these is not an issue associated with a blood pH above 7.8

Hyperactivity

Which of these is NOT a common electrolyte?

Peptides

Which of these does a change in sodium levels not affect?

Blood sugar

Aldosterone’s release is dependent on what?

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

What body part has the most water

Muscle

What are the two main fluid compartments?

Intracellular and extracellular

What does a hypotonic solution do?

Moves water into cells

What does ADH do?

Keeps water in the body

What’s the difference between dehydration and hypotonic hydration?

Dehydration = too little water; Hypotonic hydration = too much water

Why do elderly individuals tend to have lower total body water percentages compared to younger adults?

Because they have a higher proportion of adipose tissue and less muscle mass

How does antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulate water balance in the kidneys?

By increasing water reabsorption in the collecting ducts

Why do hypertonic solutions draw water out of cells?

Because they have a higher solute concentration than the intracellular fluid

How do osmoreceptors contribute to the thirst mechanism?

By sensing changes in extracellular fluid osmolality and stimulating the hypothalamus

Explain why edema occurs in patients with poor lymphatic return or low plasma protein levels.

Because fluid accumulates in interstitial spaces due to poor reabsorption or drainage

Which of the following best explains why adult males typically have more body water than adult females?

Males have a higher ratio of muscle to fat

What portion of the extracellular fluid is made up by interstitial fluid?

80%

Which of the following is a non-electrolyte?

Glucose

What is the result of increased osmolality in the extracellular fluid?

Activation of osmoreceptors and ADH// release’

What fluid shift occurs in a hypotonic environment

Water enters the cell

What effect does atrial natriuretic peptide have on the release of ADH and

aldosterone?

It inhibits the release of both

Which of the following triggers the release of renin in the RAAS pathway?

Increased potassium levels

What happens to resting membrane potential (RMP) when extracellular potassium increases?

RMP becomes less negative, decreasing excitability

Which hormone is responsible for increasing calcium reabsorption and decreasing phosphate ion reabsorption in the kidneys?

PTH

Why is the bicarbonate buffer system considered the most important in the body?

It buffers both the extracellular and intracellular fluids

What is the typical percentage of body water in skeletal muscle for an adult?

78%

What is body water made up of when divided into extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF)?

1/3 ECF and 2/3 ICF

What is the composition of extracellular fluid?

20% blood plasma and 80% interstitial fluid

What is the ideal level of water intake daily?

2.5L

What are the receptors that are responsible for regulating thirst and sensing osmolarity in (ECF)?

Hypothalamus

What is the main purpose of sodium in the body?

Sodium helps maintain fluid balance and blood pressure.

What does aldosterone control in the blood volume?

Aldosterone increases sodium.

Why is maintaining electrolyte balance important?

Maintain normal muscle and nerve function.

Which condition is characterized by excessive water intake leading to dilution of body fluids?

Hypotonic Hydration

What is one of the main functions of maintaining electrolyte balance in the body?

Maintenance of nerve and muscle function

Water intake needs to be what amount in order to equal water output?

2.5 L

When it comes to burns or viral and bacterial infections, what is the number one killer?

Dehydration

What is the primary fluid compartment that contains about two-thirds of the body’s water?

Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

Which part of the brain regulates thirst in response to changes in osmolality?

Hypothalamus

Which of the following factors primarily influences the homeostatic control of water content in the human body?

Osmolarity of Body Fluids