Uniformitarianism

the theory that the processes that change the Earth's crust and surface over time remain uniform and continuous - James Hutton

Three Age system

CJ Thomsen - Stone, Bronze, Iron

Typology

Sir John Evans - Classification of items based on their shared features, placing them into chronological categories.

Ethnography

Theory of evolving societies; Savagery, Barbarism, Civilization

Stratigraphy

using the order in which things come on a time scale to make an analysis - rock layers, written records, etc - Heinrich Schliemann

Seriation

Arranges artifacts into chronological orders based on changes in their styles and abundance from across time. - Sir Williams Flinders Petrie

Direct Historical

interprets the past by tracing links between cultures and documented historical periods and assuming they are related.

Neolithic Revolution

A period of exponential growth in agricultural methods and technology that increased the yields and efficiency of crops allowing for populations to thrive

Ecological Approach

focuses on the complex relationship between societies of the past and their environments

Culture Ecology

studies cultural activities and cultural changes due to the environment and changes in the environment - Julian Steward

Radiocarbon dating

analysis of the constant rate of decay of radiocarbon atoms in an organic sample to identify how much has decayed since the organism died.

Processual Archaeology

Provision of explanations rather than details and the culmination of testable theories, frequently questioning and scrutinizing ideas to make them as accurate as possible to the truth

Artifacts

Objects that are made, modified, or used; transportable

Ecofacts

Biological remains associated with subsistence / the natural environment; organic remains

Features

Modified aspect of the site that is not transportable and has no added material; like a hole or tree stump

Structures

Constructed elements of the site that are not transportable; has added materials

Sites

Any spots that humans have been, past or present

Regions

Area with several occupation sites, often linked by some cultural association

Tell site

some kind of formation or feature that can identify that humans have been there

Context

Relationships between the matrix surrounding the cultural remains and the remains themselves

Matrix

Sediments and Soils

Primary context

context that describes an undisturbed artifact, feature, or site

Secondary Context

Context that describes the disturbance of an artifact, feature, or site since its creation

Provenience

The 3D location of the archaeology remains (Horizontal and Vertical)

Association

Relationship between the cultural and natural aspects of the site

Cultural Formation Process

Changes in artifacts, features, or sites caused by primary or secondary human activity

Natural Formation Process

Changes in Artifacts, features, or sites caused by exposure to the elements

Waterlogging

Anaerobic conditions are not ideal for bacterial growth and decomposition, allowing from things to be preserved for much longer

Frozen Preservation

Lack of liquid water and low temperature is not ideal for bacterial growth and decomposition, allowing things to be preserved for longer

Arid Preservation

Lack of water is not ideal for bacterial growth and decomposition, allowing for things to preserved for longer

Research Design

Hypothesis and Formulation of a research strategy around a discovery

Ground Reconnaissance

Consultation of documentary sources and locals, then creating a survey plan based off this data

Salvage archaeology

the excavation of a site that is under threat of being lost and destroyed

Unsystematic Survey (non-probabilistic sampling)

choosing survey samples based on criteria

Systematic Survey

Choosing Survey samples by a selective pattern

Extensive Survey

combines results of neighboring sites or regions

intensive Survey

aims for the comprehensive coverage of a site or area

Aerial Reconnaissance

Data attained from elevated analysis of the surface (satellites, planes, etc)

Checkerboard Excavation

Excavates every other square space in a checkerboard pattern

Wheeler-box Excavation

use of baulks between squares, often used for sites with structures

Running Section Method

creation of a vertical section where needed for revealing a structure or feature. used in situ with Wheeler box or Checkerboard

Step Trench Method

Required for particularly deep sites for safety reasons; used in situ with Wheeler box or Checkerboard

Assemblage

a grouping of the Archaeological remains belonging to the same occupation phase / activity

Relative Dating

dating of an artifact or occupation phase in relation to another; either older or younger

Absolute Dating

Chronometric aging of an artifact or matrix

Gregorian (Christian) Calendar's year 1

AD (CE) 1

Muslim Calendar's year 1

CE 622

Greek Calendar's year 1

776 BCE

Mayan Calendar's year 1

3114 BCE

Egyptian Calendar's year 1

year one begins with each pharaoh

BC

before christ

AD

Anno Domini (in the year of the lord)

CE

common era

BCE

before common era

BP

Before present, 1950

Law of Superposition

sediments accumulate into layers over time; a deeper layer is older than a nearer one

Biostratigraphic units

numbering of artifacts placing them into chronological order

Contextual Seriation

Seriation based on the duration of appearances of an object and changes in appearances of an object

Frequency Seriation

Traces the abundance changes of a feature or object through time, creates a battleship curve when graphed

Lexicostatistics

tracing of the changes of vocabulary in written records over time

Glottochronology

use of statistical data to date the divergence of languages from the their parent languages, defined in years

Climate Chronology

Analysis of Deep sea and ice core samples to detect change in the climate over time

Saw tooth climate curve

a graph that shows the changes in climate over thousands of years

Pollen dating (palynology)

use of preserved pollen spores to create a dateable pollen zone sequence, or pollen profile. can range drastically by region.

Faunal Dating

Tracing of the presence or absence of animals in regions, and the evolution of these animals

Chronometric Dating

A system linked to a 'year' that follows a regularly repeating timeable process

Floating Calendar

A calendar that cannot be linked to another calendar that is not floating

In Situ

"In place" describes an undisturbed artifact, site, or feature.

Terminus Post Quem

"Date After-which"

Terminus Ante Quem

"Date before which"

Dendrochronology

using tree growth rings in connection with a master sequence and other such factors to deduce a date

Radioactive Dating

analysis of the constant radioactive decay of elements in a sample to discern an accurate date

Formation of Radiocarbon

Sub atomic particles interact with a particle in the upper atmosphere producing a high energy neutron. The neutron reacts with an N-14 molecule to produce a C-14 molecule, which reacts with oxygen to produce an isotopic molecule of carbon dioxide which are ultimately ingested by animals through plants that utilized the radiocarbon dioxide molecule.

Half life of C-14

5730yrs (then releasing a beta particle)

Radiocarbon AMS

A machine accelerates ions of the sample to extremely high kinetic energies before mass analysis for dating small samples

Potassium-Argon Decay

Radioactive potassium is created when igneous material is formed. there is no argon gas at that point because the formation heat drives all of it off. Potassium decays to Argon gas by a half life of 1.25 billion years

Argon-Argon Decay

used for dating volcanic eruptions and deposits of ash and igneous rock, Argon-39 decays Argon-40 by a half life of 269 years

Uranium Series Decay

The decay of Radioactive uranium-238 down into lead-82, through protactinium-231 or Thorium-230

Optically Stimulated Luminescence

the absorption of radiation into the voids of silt and sand grains after they have been exposed to light

Thermoluminescence

the absorption of radiation into the voids of clay after it has been heated to over 500 degrees celsius

Obsidian Hydration

the absorption of water into obsidian creating hydration rings in the rock

Social Archaeology

Studies the relationships between groups of people; how the are organized internally and externally.

Polity

an organized society

Histogram (Scale)

number of small sites vs. large sites connected within the settlement pattern

Settlement Pattern

groupings of similar sites in a region

Four-Fold Classification

Band, Segmentary, Chiefdom, State

Band Society

Small site, >1000 pop, Hunter / gathering nature. (before 10,000 BP all sites were bands.)

Segmentary Society

Larger than Bands, ~1000 pop, Horticulturalistic, Agriculturalistic, Pastoralistic nature. Egalitarian. Relied on domestication (no site dominance)

Segmentary Isolated

A dispersed Segmentary society

Segmentary Grouped

A nucleated or agglomerated Segmentary society

Egalitarianism

The belief that rank is achieved through life achievements and not through birthright

Chiefdom Society

Varying site size, 5000-20,000 pop, people of power, reliance on domestication, prestige of lineage

State Society

Varying Site size, 20,000 to millions pop, political center, leader and laws, separation of religion and ruling, economic specializations, social classes,

Ecosystem

a community of living organisms that live and interact with a specific environment

Ecozone

A distinct geographic area with specific groups of organisms living together

Ecotone

where two ecozones overlap; an area of transition

Paleoenvironment

A past environmental system

Paleoclimate

A past climate system

Climate

Changes in weather and environment over time; long term

Cultural Ecology

Similarities in cultures in a given environment and their connections to the nature of that environment

Human Ecology

Cultural and societal interactions between human and non-human communities

Micro-Botanical Remains

small plants remains like phytoliths, spores, or charcoal

Arboreal Pollen

Pollen from trees and shrubs

Non-arboreal Pollen

pollen from herbs and grasses

Macro-Botanical Remains

Larger plant remains like seeds, fruit, and wood

Micro-Faunal Remains

Smaller animal remains like rodent, bat, and insectivore remains.

Palaeoentomology

study of the remains of worms and insects to create connections with micro-climates

Macro-Faunal Remains

Larger animal remains like rabbits, bears, or large fish

First fire

Koobi Fora, Kenya (1.7 mya) or Zhoukoudian, China (500,000 BP)

Site Catchment Analysis

total area from which the site's contents have been derived

Site exploitation Territory

the area around a site that would be exploited by the sites inhabitants for dietary needs and immediate needs

Carrying Capacity

the number and density of individuals that land can support

Zooarchaeology

the study of animals of the past through evidence left behind by them

Bioanthropology

the study of humans of the past through what they left behind

Coprolites

any evidence that something was consumed

U-Shape

carnivore mark

V-Shape

butcher mark

NISP

Number of identified Specimens

MNI

Minimum Number of Individuals

Taphonomy

The analysis of the process of fossilization

Human Dry Weight

approx. 25-30% of live weight

Rickets

Vitamin D Defiency

Scurvy

Vitamin C deficiency

Antemortem

Healed trauma at the time of death

Perimortem

Unhealed trauma at the time of death

Postmortem

Desiccative trauma after death

The Homos

Homo Habilis (2.5-1.7mya, East Africa)

Homo Ergaster (1.8-0.6mya, Africa)

Homo Erectus (1.8mya-27ka, Africa, far east Indonesia)

Homo Heidelbergensis (500-200ka, Africa, Europe)

Homo Neanderthalensis (200-28ka, Europe)

Homo Sapiens (500ka, everywhere)

The Australopithecines

Australo Anamensis (~4.4mya, East Africa)

Australo Afarensis (~3.5mya, East Africa)

Austral Africanus (~2.8mya, South Africa)

The Paranthropines

Paran Aethiopicus (2.7-2.3mya, East Africa)

Paran Boisei (2.3-0.7mya, East Africa)

Paran Robustus (1.8-1mya, South Africa)

Bipedal

Two-legged

Quadrapedal

Four-legged

Cranium

to do with the head (skull)

Postcranium

excluding the skull

Foramen Magnum

A hole in the bottom of the skull where the brain connects to the spine

Pelvis

Femur

Thigh bone connecting to the Pelvis

Tibia

Larger shin bone connecting to the femur

Fibia

Smaller Shin bone located to the side of the Tibia

Condyles

the sides of the femur joint