front 1 Upper respiratory system | back 1 nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, and pharynx (down to the epiglottis) |
front 2 Lower respiratory system | back 2 Larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and alveoli |
front 3 Nose/Nasal Cavity | back 3 The entry point for air; nasal conchae creates turbulence to warm, humidify, and filter incoming air. The paranasal sinuses connect to the nasal cavity |
front 4 Pharynx (throat) | back 4 A muscular passageway divided into three regions - Nasopharynx: posterior to the nasal cavity - Oropharynx: posterior to the oral cavity - Laryngopharynx: posterior to the larynx |
front 5 Bronchi/Bronchioles | back 5 The trachea branches into left and right primary bronchi, which enter the lungs and continue to branch into smaller bronchioles |
front 6 Conducting portion | back 6 All structures from the nose/mouth to the terminal bronchioles. This portion filters, warms, and humidifies air but does not perform gas exchange |
front 7 Gas exchange | back 7 Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli |
front 8 Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium | back 8 Specialized respiratory epithelium that lines the conducting portion; coated with a sticky mucus |
front 9 Mucociliary elevator | back 9 Cilia constantly beat in a coordinated wave, moving the mucus and any trapped debris and pathogens upward toward the pharynx; prevents contaminants from reaching the delicate lungs |
front 10 Type I Alveolar Cells | back 10 Thin, squamous epithelial cells that form the primary structure of the alveolar wall; main sites of gas exchange |
front 11 Type II Alveolar Cells | back 11 Provide surfactant, a detergent-like substance that reduces surface tension and prevents the alveoli from collapsing after exhalation |
front 12 Bronchial arteries | back 12 Supplies the lungs with oxygenated blood |
front 13 Visceral Pleura | back 13 Inner layer that directly covers the surface of the lungs |
front 14 Pleural Cavity | back 14 Houses the lungs; contains a small amount of pleural fluid that reduces friction during breathing |
front 15 Parietal Pleura | back 15 The outer layer that lines the inside of the thoracic wall, the mediastinum, and the superior surface of the diaphragm |
front 16 Pulmonary Ventiliation | back 16 Breathing, involves a pressure gradient between the atmosphere and the alveoli |
front 17 Primary muscles in puliminary ventilation | back 17 Diaphragm and intercostal muscles |
front 18 Inhalation | back 18 The diaphragm contracts and flattens The external intercostal muscles contract, lifting the ribcage Increased volume of thoracic cavity Decreased intra-pulmonary pressure below atmospheric pressure |
front 19 Exhalation | back 19 Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax Thoracic cavity volume decreases Increased intra-pulmonary pressure above atmospheric pressure |
front 20 Medulla Oblongata | back 20 In the brainstem; acts as the central respiratory center |
front 21 How medulla determines respiratory | back 21 Central and Peripheral Chemoreceptors, stretch receptors in the lungs, proprioceptors in muscles and joints |
front 22 Major plasma proteins | back 22 Albumins, Globulins, and Fibrinogen |
front 23 Albumins | back 23 Transport fatty acids, thyroid hormones, and steroids |
front 24 Globulins | back 24 Immunoglobulins and transport globulins |
front 25 Fibrinogen | back 25 Clot formation |
front 26 Base | back 26 Broad, superior part of the heart where major vessels attach |
front 27 Apex | back 27 The pointed, inferior portion of the heart |
front 28 Heart wall layers | back 28 Endocardium, Myocardium (contracts), epicardium |
front 29 Pericardium | back 29 Double-wall sac that encloses the heart Parietal pericardium = outer layer; epicardium = inner layer |
front 30 Pulmonary circuit | back 30 Carries blood between the heart and the lungs (right atrium --> left atrium) |
front 31 Systemic circuit | back 31 Carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body (Left atrium --> right atrium) |
front 32 AV node | back 32 Relays and intensifies the impulse from the SA node, introducing a slight delay to allow the atria to contract fully |
front 33 Bundle of His/AV Bundle | back 33 Conducts the impulse from the AV node toward the ventricles |
front 34 Purkinje fibers | back 34 Spread the impulse throughout the ventricular myocardium, causing the ventricles to contract |
front 35 Sympathetic Influence | back 35 Releases catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine) Causes a positive chronotropic effect (increased heart rate) Causes a positive inotropic effect (increased force of contraction) |
front 36 Parasympathetic Influence | back 36 Releases acetylcholine Causes a negative chronotropic effect Causes a negative inotropic effect Primarily via the vagus nerve |
front 37 Capacitance vessels | back 37 systemic veins; hold most of the blood |
front 38 Command center of the endocrine system | back 38 The hypothalamus and pituitary gland |
front 39 Hypothalamus linking nervous and endocrine system as an endocrine organ | back 39 Hypothalamic neurons produce antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OXT). These hormones travel along axons to the posterior pituitary, where they are stored and released into the bloodstream. These are called neurosecretions |
front 40 Hypothalamus linking nervous and endocrine system by secreting regulatory hormones | back 40 The hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibitory hormones that control the anterior pituitary. There, regulatory hormones travel via a specialized blood vessel network called the hypophyseal portal system to precisely regulate the anterior pituitary's hormone release |
front 41 Hypothalamus linking nervous and endocrine system: containing autonomic centers | back 41 Autonomic centers in the hypothalamus exert nervous control over the adrenal medulla, influencing the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine |
front 42 Thyroid Gland | back 42 Located anterior to the trachea Produces Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) which regulates metabolic rate Produces Calcitonin (CT) which lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity |
front 43 Parathyroid Glands | back 43 Four small glands embedded on the posterior surface of the thyroid Produce Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) which raises blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts, reducing calcium loss in urine, and promoting calcium absorption in the intestines via vitamin D activation |
front 44 Adrenal glands regions | back 44 Medulla and Cortex |
front 45 Adrenal Medulla | back 45 Part of the sympathetic nervous system Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine |
front 46 Adrenal Cortex | back 46 Produces cortisol, aldosterone (regulates blood pressure), and androgens (sex hormones) |
front 47 Pancreatic islets | back 47 Performs the endocrine role of the pancreas |
front 48 Pancreatic alpha cells | back 48 secrete glucagon: raises blood glucose levels |
front 49 Pancreatic beta cells | back 49 Secrete insulin: lowers blood glucose levels |
front 50 Pancreatic delta cells | back 50 Secrete somatostatin: inhabits the secretion of both glucagon and insulin, slowing nutrient absorption |
front 51 Pancreatic PP Cells | back 51 Secrete pancreatic polypeptide, which inhibits gallbladder contractions and regulates some pancreatic enzymes |
front 52 Heart | back 52 Produces Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) and Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) in response to high blood pressure; inhibits ADH and aldosterone to lower blood pressure |
front 53 Kidneys | back 53 Produce Erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low oxygen levels, which stimulates red blood cell production Produces Renin, which raises blood pressure Converts vitamin D into its active form calcitriol |
front 54 Pineal Gland | back 54 Located in the epithalamus of the brain; produces melatonin |
front 55 Adipose tissue | back 55 Produces leptin (appetite/fat storage) and resistin (insulin resistance) |
front 56 System that remains relatively stable with age compared to other systems | back 56 Endocrine |