How psychology is a science

Uses the scientific method to study behavior and mental processes through observation, experimentation, and analysis

Three key elements of the scientific attitude and how they support scientific inquiry

Curiosity (asking questions), Skepticism (demanding evidence), and Humility (accepting when wrong). These foster objective and reliable research

How does critical thinking feed into a scientific attitude and smarter thinking for everyday life

It evaluates evidence, detects biases, and considers alternative explanations, leading to better decisions in science and daily life

How does cognitive biases illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than common sense

Biases like hindsight bias, overconfidence, and seeing patterns in randomness distort judgment. Science counters these with systematic observation and testing

Define Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

What are the three key elements of the scientific attitude

Curiosity, Skepticism, Humility

Define Critical Thinking

Careful reasoning that evaluates evidence, detects biases, and considers alternative explanations

Define Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an outcome, that it was predictable all along (“I knew it!”)

Define Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

Define Overconfidence.

Overestimating the accuracy of our knowledge or predictions

Describe how theories advance psychological science

Theories organize observations and predict behaviors or events, guiding research and generating hypotheses that can be tested

How do psychologists use case studies

Case Studies are in-depth analysis of one individual or group

How do psychologists use naturalistic observations

Naturalistic Observation is observing behavior in natural settings without interference.

How do psychologists use surveys to observe and describe behavior

Survies collect self-reported data from many people.

Why random sampling is important

Random Sampling ensures every member of a population has an equal chance of being included, reducing bias.

Define Peer Reviewers

Experts who evaluate research before publication to ensure validity and reliability

Define Theory

An explanation that organizes observations and predicts future behaviors or events

Define Hypothesis

A testable prediction derived from a theory

Define Operational Definition

A precise statement of how a variable is measured or manipulated in a study

Define Replication

Repeating a study with different participants and settings to confirm findings

Define Case Study

A detailed examination of a single individual or group

Define Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies to identify overall trends

Define Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without manipulation

Define Survey

A method of collecting self-reported data from a large sample

What is Social Desirability Bias

Tendency of respondents to answer in a way that is socially acceptable rather than truthful.

What is Self-Report Bias

Inaccuracy in responses due to memory errors or intentional misreporting

What is Experimenter Bias

When a researcher’s expectations influence the outcome of a study

Define Population

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population

Explain what it means when we say two things are correlated, and describe positive and negative correlations

Correlation means two variables are related.

- Positive correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.

- Negative correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.

Explain illusory correlations

Perceiving a relationship where none exists

Explain regression toward the mean

Extreme scores tend to move closer to the average on retesting

Describe the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect

Experiments use random assignment, control groups, and manipulation of independent variables to isolate cause-and-effect relationships

Define Experimental Methodology

Research design that manipulates variables to establish cause-and-effect

Define Non-Experimental Methodology

Research that observes variables without manipulation (e.g., correlation studies).

Define Correlation

A measure of how two variables relate to each other

Define Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure (from -1 to +1) indicating the strength and direction of a correlation

Define Variable

Any factor that can change or vary in an experiment

Define Scatterplot

A graph showing the relationship between two variables using plotted points

Define Illusory Correlation

Believing two variables are related when they are not

Define Directionality Problem

In correlation, it’s unclear which variable causes the other

Define Experiment

A research method that manipulates variables to determine cause-and-effect

Define Experimental Group

The group exposed to the independent variable

Define Control Group

The group not exposed to the independent variable, used for comparison

Define Independent Variable(s)

The factor manipulated by the researcher

Define Dependent Variable(s)

The outcome measured in response to changes in the independent variable

Define Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce bias

Define Single-Blind Procedure

Participants don’t know which group they are in

Define Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know the group assignments

Define Placebo

An inactive substance or condition given to control group participants

Define Confounding Variable

An outside factor that can affect results if not controlled

Explain the process of determining which research design to use

Researchers choose a design based on the research question, ethical considerations, and whether the goal is to describe, predict, or explain behavior

Explain the value of simplified laboratory conditions in illuminating everyday life

Laboratory conditions allow researchers to control variables and isolate effects, helping identify principles that apply broadly to real-world behavior

Explain why psychologists study animals, and explain the ethical research guidelines that safeguard human and animal welfare

Animals help researchers understand basic processes and develop treatments. Ethical guidelines include minimizing harm, humane housing, and following institutional review standards

Describe how psychologists’ values influence what they study and how they apply their results

Psychologists’ cultural and personal values shape research topics, interpretations, and applications, though scientific methods aim to minimize bias

Define Quantitative Research

Research using numerical data and statistical analysis

Define Qualitative Research

Research using non-numerical data like interviews and observations to explore meaning and experiences

Define Likert Scales

Rating scales that measure attitudes or opinions on a continuum (e.g., strongly agree to strongly disagree)

Define Institutional Review

Oversight by an ethics committee to ensure research meets safety and ethical standards

Define Informed Consent

Participants must be fully informed about the study and voluntarily agree to participate

What does “Protect from Harm” mean in research ethics

Researchers must minimize physical and psychological risks to participants

Define Confidentiality

Keeping participants’ data private and secure

Define Debriefing

Explaining the study’s purpose and procedures to participants after it ends, including any deception used

Describe descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics summarize and organize data using measures like mean, median, mode, and graphs

Explain how we describe data using three measures of central tendency and percentile rank

- Mean: Average of scores.

- Median: Middle score.

- Mode: Most frequent score.

- Percentile Rank: Indicates the percentage of scores below a given score

Explain the relative usefulness of the two measures of variation

- Range: Difference between highest and lowest scores; quick but affected by outliers.

- Standard Deviation: Shows how much scores vary around the mean; more accurate.

Describe inferential statistics

Techniques that allow researchers to draw conclusions about a population based on sample data

Explain how we determine whether an observed difference can be generalized to other populations

Through statistical significance testing and effect size, ensuring differences are unlikely due to chance

Define Descriptive Statistics

Methods for summarizing and describing data

Define Histogram

A bar graph showing frequency distribution of data

Define Measure of Central Tendency

A single score representing a set of data (mean, median, mode)

Define Mode

The most frequently occurring score

Define Mean

The arithmetic average of scores

Define Median

The middle score when data is ordered

Define Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores below a specific score

Define Skewed Distribution

A distribution where scores are not symmetrical around the mean

Define Range

Difference between highest and lowest scores.

Define Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out scores are around the mean

Define Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve representing a normal distribution of data

Define Inferential Statistics

Methods for making predictions or inferences about a population from sample data

Define Statistical Significance

Indicates that results are unlikely due to chance

Define Effect Size

A measure of the strength of a relationship or difference

What is the Biological Perspective in psychology

To focuses on the influence of biology on behavior—brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, genetics. Explains mental processes through physical structures and chemical processes

What is the Psychodynamic Perspective

Emphasizes unconscious drives, early childhood experiences, and inner conflicts. Originated from Freud’s theories. Behavior is shaped by unresolved unconscious motives

What is the Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through conditioning (classical and operant). Rejects internal mental states as explanations

What is the Cognitive Perspective

Examines mental processes like thinking, memory, problem-solving. Behavior is influenced by how we interpret and process information

What is the Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and self-actualization. People are inherently good and strive for meaning and fulfillment.

What is the Sociocultural Perspective

Looks at how social and cultural factors influence behavior—norms, traditions, ethnicity, gender roles

What is the Biopsychosocial Perspective

Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to explain behavior. Holistic approach