Manchester, England

A major industrial city in England that grew rapidly during the Industrial Revolution. It became known for its large textile factories, pollution, crowded living conditions, and major role in manufacturing.

Factory System

A method of production where goods were made in large buildings using machines and workers. Instead of working at home, people worked long hours in factories with strict rules.

Luddites

A group of skilled workers in England who protested factory machines in the early 1800s. They believed machines were taking their jobs, so they destroyed equipment as a form of resistance.

Coal (in relation to the Industrial Revolution)

The main energy source that powered factories, steam engines, and machines during the Industrial Revolution. Britain’s large coal supply helped it industrialize quickly.

Steam Pump

An early machine invented to pump water out of mines. It helped miners access deeper coal and played an important role in increasing coal production.

Tenements

Overcrowded, poorly built apartment buildings where factory workers lived. They often lacked clean water, ventilation, and sanitation, leading to disease and unsafe living conditions.

Dysentery

A deadly disease common in crowded industrial cities. It spreads through dirty water and causes severe diarrhea and dehydration, often affecting families living in tenements.

Germ Theory

The scientific idea that diseases are caused by microorganisms (“germs”), not by bad air or smells. This discovery helped improve hygiene, sanitation, and public health during the Industrial Revolution.

Child Labor

The practice of using children to work long hours in dangerous factories or mines. Children were paid very little and often worked in unsafe conditions.

Mule Scavengers

Children who worked in textile factories crawling under running machines (“mules”) to collect dropped cotton. It was extremely dangerous, and many children were injured.

Sadler Reports

A collection of testimonies gathered by Michael Sadler in 1832 that exposed the harsh conditions in factories, especially for children. These reports helped convince the government to pass factory reforms.

Labor Unions

Organizations formed by workers to fight for better wages, shorter hours, and safer working conditions. Unions used strikes and negotiations to demand reform.

Factory Acts

A series of British laws passed during the 1800s that limited working hours, improved safety, and protected children and women in factories.

Public Health Acts (1875)

British laws that required cities to clean up water supplies, improve sewage systems, reduce pollution, and improve sanitation. These laws helped reduce disease in industrial cities.

Standard of Living

A measure of how comfortable and prosperous people are. During the Industrial Revolution, some people gained wealth, but many factory workers had low wages, unsafe housing, and poor living conditions.