Phylogeny

a branching diagram that reflects the evolutionary history of a group of organisms

How are species distinguished

morphological characteristics, molecular/genetic characteristics, biochemistry

How are species categorized

Kingdoms or domains

homology

phenotypic and genetic similarity due to shared ancestry

analogy

similarity due to convergent evolution

convergent evolution

occurs when similar environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar (analogous) adaptions in organisms from different evolutionary lineages

Genome

• comparing nucleic acids or other molecules to determine relatedness

Kingdoms

Monera (prokaryotes)

protista

plantae

fungi

animalia

Domains

bacteria

archaea

eukarya

KPCOFGS

kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

Endosymbiotic Theory

mitochondria and chloroplasts in Eukaryotes came from symbiotic bacteria

Horizontal gene transfer

The movement of genes from one genome to another

Structure of Prokaryotes

no nucleus

no membrane bound organelles

bacteria and archaea

microscopic (usually)

spheres (cocci), rods (bacillu), spirals

Function of Prokaryotes

rapid reproduction

horizontal gene transfer

resting stages

dispersal

Nutritional Strategies

Phototroph

chemotroph

autotroph

heterotrophs

Protists Supergroups

excavate

SAR clade

archeplastida

unikonta

Protist

Anything that isn't a plant, animal, fungus, or bacteria

Excavata

Diplomonads and parabasalids

lack plastids

SAR clade

Stramenophiles

Alveolates

Rhizarians

Archaeplastida

parent group of modern land plants

red algae and green algae

Unikonts

Amoebozoans

Opisthokonts

animals, plants, fungi, and some protists

Protist Importance

Photosynthetic protists (producers, foundation of food web)

symbiotic (gut symbionts, dinoflagellates and coral)

Fungi Energy Source

Heterotroph (other + feed)

saprophytic (rotten + plant)

symbiotic (+/+)

parasitic (+/-)

Fungi Structure

Single-cell (yeast)

mycelia

hyphae

chitin

Fungal Mycelia

interwoven networks of branched hyphae adapted for absorption (drinking straw for nutrients)

Fungal Hyphae

tiny filaments with very high surface area (individual drinking straw)

Fungal chitin

Cell Wall

(equivalent of cellulose cell wall for plants)

Mycorrhizae

Delivers ions and minerals to plants

supply the fungi with organic nutrients (carbohydrates)

Haploid Cells

Spores

Plasmogamy

union of cytoplasm from 2 parent mycelia

Karyogamy

Haploid nuclei fuse, producing diploid cells

diploid phase undergoes meiosis, producing haploid spores

Generalized Life Cycle of Fungi

Sexual

Plasmogamy (fusion of cytoplasm)=heterokaryotic stage

karyogamy (fusion of nuclei)

meiosis--spores

germination--mycelium

Asexual

spore producing structures

spores

germination

Fungal Groups

Zygomycetes (ecologically diverse)

Glomeromycetes (mycorrhizal symbiosis with plant roots)

higher fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes)

Ascomycetes

Sac Fungi

produce sexual spores containing fruiting body

Basiodiomyctes

Mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi

Decomposers of wood

in response to environmental stimuli, mycelium reproduces sexually by producing fruit bodies

Lichen

Symbiotic association between a photosynthetic microorganism and a fungus

algae provide carbon compounds while fungi provide environment for growth

Derived Traits of Land Plants

Alternation of generations

multicellular, dependent embryos

walled spores produced in sporangia

multicellular gametangia (reproductive structures)

apical meristems

Gametophyte

haploid

gametes produced by mitosis

gametes fuse to form diploid zygote

Sporophyte

diploid

produces haploid spores my meiosis

spores grow into haploid gametophytes

Alternation of Generation

Gametophyte=mitosis=fertilization=mitosis

sporophyte=meiosis=spore=gametophyte

archegonia

Female gametangia, produce eggs are are the site of fertilization

antheridia

male gametangia, produce and release sperm

stomata

specialized cells that allow for gas exchange between the outside air and the plant

cuticle

waxy covering of the epidermis

Bryophyte

Nonvascular plant

mosses

dominated by gametophytes

Xylem

conducts most of the water and minerals

phloem

has cells arranged into tubes that distribute sugars, amino acids, and other organic products

Sporophylls

modified leabes with sporangia

Sporangia

capsule containing haploid spores

Sori

clusters of sporangia on the underside of sporophylls

Megaspores

give rise to female gametophytes

heterosporous

Microspores

Give rise to male gametophytes

Heterosporous

Seed

consists of embryo and nutrients surrounded by protective coat

Seed plants

reduced gametophytes (microscopic)

heterospory

pollen (air borne)

ovules

Conifers

seeds that are exposed on sporophylls that form cones

Megasporangium

diploid tissue where haploid megaspore is formed (meiosis)

Megaspore

Haploid cell that grows into the female gametophyte

Gymnosperm Phyla

Coniferophyte

cycadophyte

gnetophyta

ginkgophyta

Derived Traits of seed plants

reduced gametophytes

heterospory

ovules

pollen

seeds