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Viewing:

Psychology

front 1

Next-in-line-Effect

back 1

When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what the other people around you say.

front 2

Spacing Effect

back 2

We retain information better when we rehearse over time.

front 3

Serial Position Effect

back 3

When you recall is better first and last items on a list, but poor for the middle.

front 4

Memory

back 4

the basis for knowing your friends, neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself.

front 5

The Phenomenon of Memory

back 5

Any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

front 6

Flashbulb Memory

back 6

A unique and highly emotional moment may give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent memory. However, this memory is not free from errors.

front 7

Encoding

back 7

Requires that you select some stimulus event (from the vast array of inputs assaulting your senses).

front 8

Storage

back 8

involves the retention of encoded material over time.

front 9

Retrieval

back 9

accessing the information and bringing it to consciousness.

front 10

Sensory Memory

back 10

the most fleeting of the 3 stages
-typically holds sights, sounds, smells, textures, and other sensory impressions for only a fraction of a second.

front 11

Working Memory (Short-term)

back 11

takes info from sensory register and connects it with items already in long-term storage

front 12

Long term Memory

back 12

receives info from working (STM) and can store it for much longer periods of time

front 13

Problems with the model

back 13

1) Some information skips the first 2 stages and enters long-term automatically
2) We select information (through attention) that is important to us.
3) The nature of short-term memory is more complex

front 14

Maintenance Rehearsal

back 14

repeating info to yourself over and over again
-serves well for maintaining info. Temporarily in working memory.

front 15

Elaborative Rehearsal

back 15

information is repeated and actively connected to knowledge already stored-better strategy for getting info into long-term memory

front 16

Chunking

back 16

organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units of chunks.

front 17

Hierarchy

back 17

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

front 18

George Sperling (1960)

back 18

found that this stage of memory holds far more info than ever reaches consciousness

front 19

Ionic Memory

back 19

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; photographic or picture image fleeting

front 20

Echoic Memory

back 20

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; sounds/words better than iconic

front 21

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

back 21

refers to synaptic enhancement after learning.
-An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapse

front 22

Stress Hormones and Memory

back 22

Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Continued stress may disrupt memory

front 23

Explicit Memory

back 23

refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

front 24

Implicit Memory

back 24

involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows.

front 25

Hippocampus

back 25

a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories

front 26

Cerebellum

back 26

a neural center in the hind-brain that processes implicit memories

front 27

Priming

back 27

the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus.
-an increase sensitivity to certain stimuli due to prior experience. Priming is believed to occur outside the conscious awareness

front 28

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon (TOT)

back 28

the inability to recall a word while knowing that it is in memory.

front 29

Forgetting

back 29

An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.

front 30

Encoding failure

back 30

we cannot remember what we don't encode

front 31

Seven sins of forgetting

back 31

1) Absent-mindedness
2) Transience
3) Blocking
4) Misattribution
5) Suggestibility
6) Bias
7) Persisitance

front 32

Absent- mindedness

back 32

inattention to details produce encoding failure

front 33

Transience

back 33

storage decay over time (fading memories)

front 34

Blocking

back 34

Interference causes forgetting inaccessibility of stored information(TOT; one item acts as an obstacle to accessing and retrieving another memory).

front 35

Misattirbution

back 35

Confusing the source of information; memories associated with the wrong times; place or person

front 36

Suggestibility

back 36

the distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation ( a leading question later becomes a false memory)

front 37

Bias

back 37

Belief-colored recollections; the influence of personal beliefs, attitudes and experiences on memory

front 38

Persistence

back 38

unwanted memories; when we can't forget.

front 39

Storage decay

back 39

poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay.

front 40

Interference

back 40

Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information.

front 41

Retrieval failure

back 41

Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be retrieved

front 42

Proactive interference

back 42

a cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information.

front 43

Retroactive interference

back 43

a cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material.
-Sleep prevents this. it leads to better recall

front 44

Motivated forgetting

back 44

People unknowingly revise their memories.

front 45

Repression

back 45

A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

front 46

Why do we forget?

back 46

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. WE filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages

front 47

Memory construction

back 47

While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.

front 48

Misinformation Effect

back 48

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

front 49

Source Amnesia

back 49

Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined.

front 50

False Memory Syndrome

back 50

A condition in which a person's identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience, which is sometimes induced by well- meaning therapists.

front 51

Improving memory

back 51

1) Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall
2) Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material
3) Make material personally meaningful
4) use memory devices
5) Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate the situation and mood
6) Recall events while they are fresh- before you encounter misinformation
7) Minimize interference

front 52

Memory devices

back 52

-associate with peg-words- something already stored
-make up a story
-chunk

front 53

Minimize interference

back 53

1)test your knowledge
2) Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know

front 54

Pavlov-Classical conditioning

back 54

Organism comes to associate 2 stimuli.
A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.

front 55

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS/US)

back 55

stimulus that unconditionally-automatically and neutrally- triggers a response

front 56

Unconditioned response

back 56

unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

front 57

Conditioned Stimulus

back 57

originally irrelevant stimulus that, after associations with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

front 58

Conditioned Response

back 58

learned response to previously neutral conditioned stimulus.

front 59

Acquisition

back 59

the initial stage in classical conditioning in which a association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.

front 60

Extinction

back 60

when the US does not follow the CS, CR begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.

front 61

Spontaneous Recovery

back 61

After a rest period, an extinguished CR spontaneously recovers, but of the CS persists alone the CR becomes extinct again.

front 62

Generalization

back 62

Tendency to respond to a stimuli similar to the CS
-Toddlers taught to fear moving cars in the street similarly respond to trucks and motorcycles.

front 63

Discrimination

back 63

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimulus that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

front 64

Operant Conditioning

back 64

a form of behavioral learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequence (stimuli that follow the response)

front 65

Shaping

back 65

Procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approx.

front 66

Positive Reinforcement

back 66

a stimulus presented after a response and increasing the probability of the response happening again.
-increases behavior

front 67

Negative Reinforcement

back 67

the removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior.
-increases behavior by stopping or reducing negative stimuli such as a shock; annoying seat-belt noise.

front 68

Primary reinforcer

back 68

an innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.

front 69

Conditioned/Secondary reinforcer

back 69

A learned reinforcer that get its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.

front 70

Immediate Reinforcer

back 70

A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.

front 71

Delayed reinforcer

back 71

A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

front 72

Skinner

back 72

developed the operant chamber, or skinner box, to study operant conditioning.

front 73

Fixed- Ratio

back 73

Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses; response rate is usually high.

front 74

Example of Fixed-ratio

back 74

Piecework pay-suppose you own a tire factor and you pay each worker a dollar for every 10 tires produced

front 75

Variable- Ratio

back 75

The number of responses required for reinforcement varies from trail to trail. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. Response rate is the highest.

front 76

Example of Variable-ratio

back 76

Telemarketers-they never know how many calls they must make before they get the next sale-less predictable

front 77

Fixed- interval

back 77

Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed; time period between rewards remain constant. Results in low response rate.

front 78

Examples of Fixed-interval

back 78

-Students who studies for a weekly quiz
-receiving a monthly paycheck

front 79

Variable-interval

back 79

Most unpredictable of all; time interval between rewards varies; response con be low or high steady responses

front 80

Examples of Variable-interval

back 80

Fishing, pop quiz, random visits

front 81

Positive punishment

back 81

presenting an unpleasant stimulus after a response or behavior

front 82

Negative punishment

back 82

removing a reinforcing stimulus after a response/behavior

front 83

Latent learning

back 83

being able to navigate quickly for a reward than the organism who haven't seen the reward, despite the lack of reinforcement.

front 84

Cognitive map

back 84

based in latent learning, being able to navigate directional in different ways without thinking about it.

front 85

Tolman

back 85

proposed the idea of cognitive maps and latent learning by working with rats in a maze.

front 86

Modeling

back 86

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

front 87

Mirror neurons

back 87

they are found in the frontal lobe of the brain; they fire when performing certain actions or when observing what another is doing.

front 88

Bandura

back 88

-pioneer in research on observational learning
-Bobo doll study indicated that individuals learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments

front 89

90-minute cycles

back 89

we go through various stages of sleep

front 90

Rhythm of sleep

back 90

Circadian rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include sleep and wakefulness, which are disrupted during transcontinental flights.
-our thinking is sharpest and memory most accurate when we are at our daily peak on circadian arousal.

front 91

Awake and Alert

back 91

During strong engagement, the brain exhibits low amplitude and fast, irregular beta waves (15-30 cps). An awake person involved in a conversation shows shows beta activity.

front 92

Awake but Relaxed

back 92

When an individual closes his eyes but remains awake, his brain activity slows down to a large amplitude and slow, regular alpha waves (9-14 cps). A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain activity.

front 93

Sleep stages 1-2

back 93

During early, light sleep the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form called theta waves (5-8 cps).
A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity.
you may experience hypnotic sensations during stage 1.

front 94

Sleep stages 3-4

back 94

During deepest sleep, brain activity slows down. there are large- amplitude. slow delta waves (1.5-4 cps)
-heart rate and breathing rate slows down

front 95

REM Sleep (paradoxical sleep)

back 95

After reaching the deepest sleep stage, the sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage 1. although still asleep, the brain engages in low-amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps).
A person during this sleep experiences rapid eye movement and reports vivid dream.
Over the course of an average night's sleep, most people make the circuit (stages) 4-6 times.

front 96

Insomnia

back 96

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

front 97

Somnambulism

back 97

Sleepwalking or sleep talking
-genetic

front 98

Nightmares

back 98

Frightening dreams that wake a sleeper form REM

front 99

Night terrors

back 99

sudden arousal from sleep with intense fear accompanied by psychological reactions that occur during stage 4.

front 100

Narcolepsy

back 100

Overpowering urge to fall asleep that may occur while talking or standing up.

front 101

Sleep apnea

back 101

Failure to breathe when asleep. After an airless minute decreased blood oxygen causes a person to wake up.

front 102

Wish fulfillment

back 102

Dreams provide a psychic safety value to discharge unacceptable feeling.
-Dreams manifest content may also have a symbolic meaning (latent content) that signify our acceptable feelings.

front 103

Information Processing

back 103

Dreams may help sift, sort, and fix a days experiences in our memories.
-dreams may relate to life stressors that have found their way into you sleeping thoughts

front 104

Activation-synthesis theory

back 104

suggests that the brain engages in a lot of random neural activity. Dreams make sense of this activity

front 105

Hypnosis

back 105

A social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perception, feeling, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

front 106

Psychoactive Drug

back 106

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood (effects consciousness).

front 107

Depressants

back 107

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
1) Alcohol
2)Barbituates
3) Opiates

front 108

Alcohol

back 108

affects motor skills, judgement, and memory... and increase aggresiveness while reducing self awareness.
-slows down body processes

front 109

Barbibtuates (Tranquilizers)

back 109

Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous syestem, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement.

front 110

Opiates

back 110

Opium and its deratives.
-depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
-brain eventually stops prodicing its own endorphins causing extreme discomfort of withdrawl.

front 111

Stimulants

back 111

drugs that exite neural activity and speed up body functions.
1) CAffenie
2) Nicotine
3)Cocaine
4)Ecstasy
5)Amphetamines
6)Meth

front 112

Caffeine and Nicotine

back 112

increase heart and breathing rates and other autominic functions to provide energy.

front 113

Amphetamines

back 113

stimulate neural activity causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes, with devasting effects.

front 114

Methamphetamine (Meth)

back 114

(speed)with the use over time it lowers dopamine levels, leaving the user with permanently depressed functioning

front 115

Ecstasy (MDMA)

back 115

a stimulant and mild hallucinogen. It produces a euphoric high and can damage serotonin-producing neurons, which results in a permanent deflation of mood and impairment of memory.

front 116

Cocaine

back 116

induces immediate euphoria (15-30 mins) followed by a crash. Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked, other forms can be sniffed or injected.
-rush depletes brain supply if dopamine, serotonin,norepinephrine causing agitated depressoin

front 117

Hallucinogens

back 117

are psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perception and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

front 118

LSD

back 118

powerful hallucinogenic drug that is also known as acid.

front 119

THC

back 119

is the major active ingredient in marijuana that triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinogens.

front 120

Sensation

back 120

a process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energy.

front 121

Perception

back 121

a process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

front 122

Pain

back 122

our body's way of telling us something has gone wrong

front 123

Gate-control Theory

back 123

theory that the spinal cord contains neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.
-"gate" opened by activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers
-"gate" closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

front 124

Top-down processing

back 124

information processing guided by higher-level mental processing
-as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

front 125

Bottom-up processing

back 125

analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

front 126

Signal detection theory

back 126

Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation
-assumes that there is no single absolute threshold
-detection depends partly in person"s: experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue

front 127

Weber'slaw

back 127

to perceive as different, 2 stimuli must differ by a differ a constant min. percentage.
-light intensity: 8%
-weight: 2%
-tone frequency: .3%

front 128

Absolute Threshold

back 128

min. stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

front 129

Difference Threshold

back 129

min. difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.
- just noticeable difference (JND)

front 130

Parallel processing

back 130

processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously

front 131

Young- Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

back 131

Simply states the retina has 3 types of color receptors.

front 132

Opponent- process theory

back 132

theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision (cells in visual system). Complementary pairs.

front 133

Visual information processing

back 133

information form the retina's receptor cones and rods is received and transmitted by the ganglia cells, whose axons make up the optic nerve, which shoots information to the brain.

front 134

Place Theory

back 134

different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochleas basilar membrane

front 135

Frequency theory

back 135

suggest an alternative explanation. whole basilar membrane vibrates with the incoming sound wave, triggering neural impulses to the brain of the same rate as the sound wave.

front 136

Taste

back 136

is a chemical sense.
-taste receptors reproduce themselves every week or so (tongue burn)
-as you get older the number of taste buds decreases; as does your taste sensitivity.

front 137

Smell

back 137

a chemical sense.-Olfaction receptors recognize odors individually
-our ability to identify scents peaks in early adulthood and gradually declines.

front 138

Gestalt- an organized whole

back 138

when vision competes with our other senses, vision usually wins- a phenomenon called visual capture
-We organize it. Gestalt psychologists showed that a figure formed a "whole" different than its surroundings.

front 139

Depth Perception

back 139

ability to see objects in three dimensions
-allows us to judge distance

front 140

Binocular Cues

back 140

help the brain compute distance
-retinal disparity and convergence

front 141

Retinal disparity

back 141

Images form 2 eyes differ. "Finger sausage"

front 142

Convergence

back 142

Neuromuscular cues. when 2 eyes move inward (towards the nose) to see near objects and outward (away from nose) to see faraway

front 143

Monocular cues

back 143

available to each eye separately

front 144

Interpostion

back 144

closer object blocks distant object
- objects that occlude (block) other objects tend to be perceive as closer

front 145

Relative Clarity

back 145

hazy object seen as more distant
- because light from distant objects, we perceive hazy objects to be far away than those objects that appear sharp and clear.

front 146

Texture gradient

back 146

indistinct (fine) texture signal an increasing distance.
-coarse= close
-fine= distant

front 147

Relative Height

back 147

higher objects seen as more distant
- in our field of vision to be farther away than those that are lower

front 148

Relative motion

back 148

closer objects seem to move faster
-fixation point

front 149

Linear perspective

back 149

Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance. The more the lines converge, the greater their perceived distance

front 150

Light and Shadow

back 150

Nearby objects reflect more light into our eyes than more distance objects. Given 2 identical objects, the dimmer one appears to be farther away.

front 151

Relative size

back 151

how big and close something is

front 152

Motion perception

back 152

objects traveling towards us grow in size and those moving away shrink in size. The same is true when the observer moves to or from an object.

front 153

Phi Phenomenon

back 153

When lights flash at a certain speed they tend to present illusions of motion.

front 154

Perceptual constancy

back 154

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal image change
-color, shape, and size

front 155

Lightness constancy

back 155

We perceive an object as having a constant lightness even while its illumination varies

front 156

Color constancy

back 156

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even when changing illumination filters the light by the object

front 157

Crystallized Intelligence

back 157

one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
- tends to increase with age

front 158

Fluid Intelligence

back 158

ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly
-tends to decrease during late adulthood

front 159

Zygote

back 159

first stage of prenatal development
-attaches to uterine wall and forms a placenta through which nourishment passes

front 160

Embryo

back 160

after 2 weeks, the zygote develops into this.
- last 6 weeks
- heart begins to beat and th organs begin to develop

front 161

Fetus

back 161

after 9 weeks, by the 6th month, the stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside the mother.
- at this time the baby can hear sounds and respond to light.

front 162

Assimilation

back 162

interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas
- mental process that modifies new schemas

front 163

Examples of assimilation

back 163

-A toddler may call all 4 legged animals doggies
- An infant will suck a bottle the same way he or she sucked a breast

front 164

Accomodation

back 164

adapting one's current understanding to incorporate new information

front 165

Sensorimotor stage

back 165

Children give mainly reflexive or motor responses to stimulation
- very little thinking involved
- coordination of their body parts to grasp and explore attractive objects
-- avoidance of things they dislike

front 166

Object permanence

back 166

the awareness that things continue to exist even when no perceived

front 167

Pre-operational stage

back 167

The ability to represent objects mentally.
Emerging sense of self as distinctive form other people and objects in the environment.
- the ability to solve simple problems using mental representation

front 168

Egocentrism

back 168

the inabilty to realize that there are other view points beside one's own

front 169

Pre-operational stage: Conservation

back 169

being aware that there are 2 glasses that have the same amount of liquid. however, when the liquid is poured into a taller narrow glass: the indication is that there is more liquid in the taller one.

front 170

Concrete Operational stage

back 170

Children can now understand that the short glass hols the same amount as the tall narrow glass.

front 171

Conservation

back 171

understanding that the thought properties of an object or substance do not change when the appearances change, but nothing is added or taken away.

front 172

Attachment

back 172

an emotional tie with another person
- shown in younger children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on separation

front 173

Harlow's Experiment

back 173

Reared monkey with 2 artificial mothers: one with a bare wire cylinder with a wooden head and an attached feeding bottle; the other with no bottle but covered with foam rubber and wrapped with cloth
-monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable mother, while feeding from the nourishing wire mother.

front 174

Imprinting

back 174

Process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.
-children become attached to what they've known
-ex. Watching the same movies

front 175

Authoritative

back 175

- both demanding and responsive
- set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open discussion

front 176

Authoritarian

back 176

Parents impose rules and expect obedients

front 177

Permissive

back 177

Submit to children s desires, make few demands, use little punishment

front 178

Kohlberg

back 178

sought to describe the development of moral reasoning
- his findings led him to believe that as we develop intelligence, we pass thru 3 basic levels of moral thinking

front 179

Kohlberg's moral ladder

back 179

As moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from the self to the wider social world.

front 180

Erik Erikson

back 180

stated that each stage of life has its own psychological task.
- a crisis that needs resolution

front 181

Erikson's stages of psychological development

back 181

front 182

Identity

back 182

One sense of self
-the adolescents task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

front 183

Intimacy

back 183

the ability to form close, and loving relationships
-a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early childhood

front 184

Behavior Genetics

back 184

study of the relative power and limits of a genetic and environmental influences on behavior

front 185

Twin studies

back 185

Identical twins: show remarkable similarities in: Intelligence, temperament, gestures, posture, and pace of speech
-can be genetically influenced
Fraternal twins and other sib;ings show fewer similarities which suggest that heredity forces are at work.

front 186

Temperament

back 186

A person's characteristic emotional re-activity and intensity
- EX. Fidgety, easygoing, quiet, placid, intense, unpredictable, cheerful, relaxed.

front 187

Molecular Genetics

back 187

the sub-field of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

front 188

Evolutionary Psychology

back 188

the study of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

front 189

Argument of critics vs. Brouchard

back 189

-the fact that twins reared together typically are more alike than those reared a part provides further testimony to the effect of environment.
-neither heredity nor environment ever acts alone to produce behavior or mental processes.
-they always interact
-from a developmental perspective, heredity and environment work together throughout a person's life.

front 190

Adoption studies

back 190

adopted children tend to resemble their biological parents in their personality (thinking, feel, acting), and their adoptive parents in their values, attitudes, manners, faith, and politics.

front 191

Medulla

back 191

Base of the brain-stem
-controls heart beat and breathing

front 192

Reticular Formation

back 192

a nerve network in the brain-stem that plays an important roll in controlling arousal and the ability to focus attention

front 193

Thalamus

back 193

the brain's sensory switch board, located on top of the brain stem
-Receives sensory information in the cortex and transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla

front 194

Cerebellum

back 194

- the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brain-stem.
- it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

front 195

Limbic System

back 195

- a doughnut- shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brain-stem and cerebral hemispheres
- associated with emotions and drives
- includes the hypothalamus, hypocampus, and amygdala

front 196

Amygdala

back 196

- 2 almond- shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system
- emotional control center
- Memory

front 197

Hypocampus

back 197

involved in memory processing

front 198

Hypothalamus

back 198

Neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities
-hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual arousal
Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
Is linked to emotion

front 199

Frontal lobe

back 199

involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plan and judgement
- contains Broca's area

front 200

Parietal Lobe

back 200

include the sensory cortex

front 201

Occipital lobe

back 201

include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
- Right half of each retina goes to left occipital lobe and Vice versa.

front 202

Temporal lobe

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include the auditory areas
-contains Wernicke's area (Speech/language development)

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Specialization and Integration

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Brain Plasticity

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The ability for our brains to form new connections after the neurons are damaged
-the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage
- the younger you are the more plastic your brain is

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William James

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Wrote the principles of Psychology and discussed functionalism
- Focused on how mental and behavioral processes enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
- in reality these ideas don't have much impact on how psychologists think today.

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William Wundt

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first psychological laboratory and his grad. student Edward Titchener's concept of introspection in Germany 1879.
- Looking inward to discover the elements of mind.

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Psychoanalysis

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The wave of thinking started by Freud
-we protect ourselves from our real feeling by using defense mechanisms

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Psychodynamic perspective

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Focuses on the unconscious mind.
We are motivated primarily by the energy of irrational desires generated in our unconscious minds
- we repress many of our true feelings and are not aware of them
- in order to get better, we must bring forward the true feelings we have in our unconscious.

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Behavior Perspective

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Focuses on observable behaviors while putting feelings to the side.
- we behave in ways because we have been recondition to do so.
- To change behaviors, we have to recondition the client

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Humanist Perspective

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Our actions are hugely influenced by our need for personal growth and by our need for personal growth and fulfillment
- Happiness is defined by the distance between our "self- concept" and "ideal self"

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Cognitive Perspective

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Focuses on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information
- Cognitive therapists attempt to change the way you think

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Nature- Nuture Controversy

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the relative contribution that genes and experience make to development of psychological traits and behaviors

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Industrial/organizational psychologists

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study and advise on behavior in the workplace

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Hindsight Bias

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the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon
-After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome

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The Hawthorne Effect

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But even the control group may experience changes
- just the fact that you know you are in an experiment can cause change

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Independent Variable

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a factor manipulated by the experimenter
- The effect of this variable is a focus of the study

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Dependent Variable

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a factor that may change in response to an independent variable
- it is usually a behavior or a mental process
-this variable would be the effect of the drug

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Case Study

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A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principes

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Random Sampling

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If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid

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Naturalistic Observation

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Watch subjects in their natural environments
- Do not manipulate the environment
-Ex. Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild

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Correlation

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Expresses a relationship between 2 variables
- when 1 trait or behavior accompanies another we say the 2 correlate
-Ex. Smoking and lung cancer
-this does not necessarily mean causation

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Positive correlation

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Variables go in the same direction

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Negative Correlation

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Variables go in opposite directions

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Correlation and causation

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Double Blind Procedure

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In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenters assistants should remain unaware of the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment

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Statistics

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tools that help us see and interpret what the unaided eye might miss.

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Normal Curve

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Representative samples

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better that biased samples
- not exceptional and memorable cases one finds at the extremes

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Less Variable observations

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more reliable than more variable ones
- the average is more reliable when it comes from scores with low variability

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More cases are better than fewer cases

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average based on may cases and not just a few