front 1 Lek | back 1 an aggregation of males that gather to engage in competitive displays that may entice visiting females who are surveying prospective partners for copulation. this mating system may have evolved in certain species if males cannot defend widely dispersed food resources or dynamic and temporary herds. Males all right in one area not have to defend multiple areas or their own, come together. |
front 2 Lek Benefits | back 2 Main for both sexes: Mating success Males: not have to put any resources in defending their own area Cost for Males: traits that females prefer may be energentically expensive to maintain. - females judge right on the spot Females: search time for a suitable mate is reduced, watch the fights and find the one they want, 1 spot |
front 3 Many large mammal herbivores form seperate herds for each sex: male only or female only, what are the benefits? | back 3 M: not spend all their time and energy impressing females, but spend time eating and stocking up. Waste time on display and not eat enough F: risk competing males killing their young. juvenile fitness driven, males want to kill preexisting babbies bc not their genes and want the females to have their babies so not worry about killing young |
front 4 Coloration of animals gives you a hint to their habitats. Describe | back 4 Colors help with camoflauge Lighter: grassland habitats. Blend into surroundings so harder for predators to spot- sandy area Dark: Bongo, w/ undulating stripes, useful for camofloge in dark/forest habitats, occasional bands of light penetrating the canopy- wooded rocky |
front 5 Structural modifications in the skulls of animals that use their heads as weapons? | back 5 animals that use their heads as weapons have: Convoluted structures, which increased bone strength in the skull. Males tend to have thicker skulls bc use as high impact weapons |
front 6 Ungulates are... | back 6 Herbivores |
front 7 polygynandrous | back 7 meaning that numerous matings can occur in a season between many partners |
front 8 Antlers | back 8 Not present in both sexes Shed Annually Used in Male Combat Are Branched Bone Core w/ skin sheath |
front 9 Pronghorn | back 9 Present in both sexes Partially Shed Annually Used in Male Combat Are Branched- in Males Bone Core w/ Keratin sheath |
front 10 Horns | back 10 Present in both sexes Not Shed Annually Used in Male Combat Are NOT Branched Bone Core w/ Keratin sheath |
front 11 parasigittal | back 11 limb posture: limbs positioned directed underneath the bodies |
front 12 What are purposes of museums? | back 12 1-public education through the display of specimens 2- education and research through the collection and preservation of specimens for reference and study |
front 13 What is a Fossil? | back 13 a fossil is any trace of past life preserved in rock, 2 kinds |
front 14 Body Fossil Trace Fossil | back 14 B:preserved parts of the bodies of organisms, such as bones, leaves, etc T:include a wide range of traces left behind by living organisms, such as footprints, casts of burrows, or coprolites= fossilized feces= doesn’t preserve an actual part of the organism |
front 15 For an organism to be fossilized it must be buried by... The hard parts of organisms (like vertebrate bones and teeth) tend to fossilize best... Whole bodies of organisms sometimes fossilize intact and together, but it is common for ... | back 15 sediments (sedimentary rocks) often they are turned to stone through the replacement of minerals brought in by groundwater. Occasionally, traces of soft parts may also be preserved before they decay. animal carcasses to fall apart before they are buried, so many fossils only include partial skeletons, or even only isolated bones and teeth |
front 16 Geolotical Time Scale GTS units are/are not equal in durations... based on ___ distincitons yonger are top/bottom of older? | back 16 describe the relative ages of rock beds and the fossils within them, based on the positions of rock layers with respect to each other and absolute, radiometric dates for key rock beds breaks up time into a hierarchy of sequentially named units. These are not equal in duration, but instead are based on major distinctions between rock units (younger rocks are originally deposited on top of older ones) |
front 17 Broadest names section.. broken into.. broken into... boundaries between these sections of time are demarcated by ___in the geologic record – for instance, the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods (the same as the boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras) is marked by the major extinction event that killed off most dinosaurs | back 17 era period Epochs major events |
front 18 What Can We Learn from Fossils? | back 18 structure of organisms that lived in the past. interpret patterns of evolutionary change through time= anatomical changes, species that lived in a particular region through time, or kinds of animals that lived on earth through processes of speciation and extinction |
front 19 Vertabrate life began in ... | back 19 water |
front 20 Ray-finned fishes are often preserved as whole skeletons, but usually the only fossil shark specimens found are teeth. Why do you think this is the case? (Hint: What do you remember that is different about the skeletons of sharks vs. ray-finned fishes?) | back 20 Ray= bone preserves Shark: cartlidge not preserve |
front 21 Fine- grain preservation better than large coarse bc... different environments of animal fossil known? | back 21 big/corse conglomerate will pulverize any specimen: not well know fossil record of animal from environments Fine: not cause damage allows bones to stay articulated: much better known animal fossil environment |
front 22 Neusticosaurs edwardsi and Mesosaurus brasiliensis: short neck long tail, medium legs-- how did they swim | back 22 Crocidile moder semi-aquatic, swam using bodies more than limbs- body undulation |
front 23 TIKTAALIK ROSEAE (CAST) | back 23 tetrapod “large shallow-water fish” fossil was found in sediments deposited in a shallow river channel (signifying an environmental transition to freshwater habitats from the marine habitats its ancestors inhabited) |
front 24 Fish features | back 24 Scales covering body fins w/ webbing |
front 25 Early Tetrapod features | back 25 o Dorsoventrally flattened head with eyes on top (similar to crocodile heads) o Has neck (seen for the first time in the fossil record! Allowed the head to move) |
front 26 Tiktaalik was intermediate between fishes and tetrapods, so let’s look at just one more. Look closely at the forelimbs | back 26 limb bones in pectoral fins, bones/joints homologous to upper arm, wrist, elbow, and shoulder in tetrapods swim w/ fins as paddles & prop up/ "push up" in shallow waters, sturdy fins support body to push along or stabalize itself in moving water |
front 27 Teeth vs. Claws | back 27 teeth are covered by enamel (which preserves), but claws are covered by the protein keratin (which doesn’t – only underlying bone is preserved) |
front 28 T-rex closer related to herbivore duck billed dinasour or fossil hawk Buteo | back 28 Buteo! bc curved claws trex meat eating |
front 29 Pterosaurs were a group of flying reptiles that lived at the same time as dinosaurs (but were not dinosaurs themselves). The flying surface (airfoil) of the pterosaur wing was comprised of a long membrane of skin. In contrast, bird wings are comprised of feathers Archaeopteryx. wing structure | back 29 Pt: v long digit support wing membrane Arch: wing supported by entire arm as opposed ot 1 finger |
front 30 bristle-like teeth on the lower jaw!! What does their structure indicate about how this pterosaur likely fed? | back 30 Filter feeter vert. strain prey algea plankton small crustaceons |
front 31 Horses live primarily in _____, but in the past, horses originated in forests and lived in a variety of habitats Where (geographically) did horses originate as a lineage? Have horses continuously inhabited that region since their origin? | back 31 open grasslands N/S america, contin: eurasia & africa until reintroduce |
front 32 As horses adapted to grassland environments, their legs became longer. In which region of the leg did bones grow longer – upper (proximal) leg, or lower (distal) leg? Why does it make sense that these grew longer instead of others? | back 32 distal/lower part grew longer bc lighter weight bones grow without increasing the mass too much, if femur would be too heavy/ energy to move |
front 33 Modern horses all have a single functional toe on each leg. What habitats is this thought to have helped them to flourish in? If this represents an adaptive change, why, in the past, might three-toed horses have also been able to co-exist with single-toed horses? | back 33 1 toe- open grassland = running long distance over hard ground helped by light distal bones 3 toe- coexisted bc succeded in different habitats of the forests |
front 34 group of reptiles that includes vertebrates such as dinosaurs (including birds) and crocodilians | back 34 archosaurs |
front 35 archosaurs synapomorphies | back 35 1-mandibular (lower jaw) fenestra 2-most interesting evolutionary transitions in vertebrates: the evolution of flight. Flight has evolved in relatively few vertebrate groups (bats, birds and pterosaurs). |
front 36 Ground up vs. Top Down | back 36 ground up ancestors of birds were small, ground-dwelling dinosaurs that would flap their feathered arms while running to generate lift. some birds will flap their wings in order to increase their speed and gain some lift. The top down theory birds’ feathered dinosaur ancestors were arboreal (moved around in trees), and then flew or glided down from the trees |
front 37 Based on the evidence that the closest dinosaur relatives of birds ran on the ground, which theory (ground up or top down) is the most likely explanation for how flight evolved in birds? | back 37 ground up closest dinasour relative liveed on ground, more likely evolved running and flapping |
front 38 The evolution of archosaurs was associated with major morphological transformations, such as the orientation of the pubis. The pubis is a long, thin bone running along the anterior side of the pelvic girdle (see placard for illustration). How has the orientation of the pubis bone changed from the alligator (exhibiting the primitive condition) to the modern bird (exhibiting the derived condition)? | back 38 Primitive point forward- alligator derived point backwards-- modern birds |
front 39 “raptor prey restraint” (providing another line of evidence for their evolutionary relationship to birds), which involved pouncing on the prey and pinning it down with the Velociraptor’s body weight. What structure is present on the Velociraptor’s feet that could be used to hook onto the prey to prevent it from escaping? | back 39 Sharp talons/ claws, but talon on 2nd digit is most useful sickle shaped enlarged and held off group during locomotion acta s a switchblade to attack and swing down dig into prey and prevent slip away |
front 40 T. rex had a bipedal posture that resembled modern kangaroos, but research within the past few decades revealed that such a posture would not have been possible since it would have dislocated many of their joints! Instead, bipedal T. rex held its body more parallel to the ground (like the Velociraptor) 2 distingushing features | back 40 1-“key-hole” shaped lateral temporal fenestra. The diapsids, a major clade of reptiles that includes species like the tuatara, alligator, and also T. rex, have two holes in their head 2-back of the head is much wider than the tip of the snout. |
front 41 Dimetrodon is another recognizable prehistoric vertebrate. However, contrary to popular belief, this animal is not a dinosaur! Rather, Dimetrodron is commonly called a “mammal-like reptile” and we will explore its relationships in a question below. The name “Dimetrodon” means “two measures of teeth”. If you observe the skull on the specimen here, you can see the large canine teeth in the anterior (front) portion of the jaw and smaller teeth in the posterior (rear) region of the jaw. Dimetrodon’s most distinctive feature is its dorsal sail, supported by elongated neural spines on the vertebrae | back 41 |
front 42 Diapsid | back 42 2 holes in head major clade of reptiles two holes in their head: one on the top of their head, and one on the side of their head (this is the lateral temporal fenestra) -The diapsids had 2 holes behind the eye, and gave rise to modern groups like lizards and snakes, and the archosaurs (crocodilians and dinosaurs, including birds). |
front 43 Synapsid | back 43 1 hole in head mammals 1 hole in the head Another group, called the synapsids, had only a single temporal fenestra behind the eye, and gave rise to modern groups like the mammals. |
front 44 Morphological traits in the skull can help infer what type of vision animals had. For instance, vertebrates such as the modern hawk in Station 6 (and humans!) have binocular vision with eyes that tend to point forward, and skulls that are much wider at the back than at the front. On the other hand, animals that use monocular vision, like alligators and many fishes, tend to have eyes on the sides of their heads, and skulls that have a fairly uniform width. What type of vision (monocular or binocular) do you think T. rex had? | back 44 Binocular, width help hunting prey, both eyes corrdinating make single feild of vision, better death precise capture prey mono- wider field, less detail further |
front 45 temporal fenestrae (see notes for Station 8 above), help to distinguish two major clades of vertebrates. | back 45 -The number of holes in the side and top of one side of the skull (behind the eye) |
front 46 Compare the number of temporal fenestrae in the skull of Dimetrodon to that of Tyrannosaurus. Based on this information, how would you classify each of these fossils (diapsid vs. synapsid)? Which is more closely related to mammals, including you? | back 46 Dimetro- synapsid= CLOSER to me trex= diapsid |
front 47 Compare the lower jaws of Smilodon and the tiger in lateral view (in the case near Smilodon). Examine the posterior region of the jaw. Which looks like it would have more forceful jaw closing? (Hint: what process do jaw-closing muscles attach to, and how does the size of this process differ between these jaws?) | back 47 controled by CORONOID process smilidion- v small coronoid / tiger v large so more SA for muscle attachment longer lever jaw closing, greater mechanical advantage |
front 48 Compare the skulls of the domestic dog (Bottom shelf, BCGM 10124) and the Dire Wolf (Top Right Shelf, BCGM 10130). How are they different, and how might these differences relate to their bite force (hint – look at the ridge at the top of the skull). | back 48 Wolf: larger ridge at top, more SA for muscle attachment, allows greater bite force larger jaw closing |
front 49 coronoid condyloid angular | back 49 jaw closing |
front 50 Amniotes, the sister clade of the amphibians. include all tetrapods that are not amphibians, and are united by 2 synapomorphies | back 50
|
front 51 amniotic egg allowed.... | back 51 the evolution of the amniotic egg allowed tetrapod lineages that possessed it to invade and live in a wider range of habitats than amphibians. reptiles and mammals |
front 52 astralugus | back 52 make the ankle joint more stable and might increase the range of locomotor behaviors or other limb functions in amniotes compared to amphibians. It is also important from a practical standpoint, because finding an astragalus in a fossil taxon would let us know that it was an amniote!!!!!!!!!! |
front 53 amniotes 2 major clades | back 53 synapsids and reptiles (birds) |
front 54 The skulls of reptiles show one of two patterns. The primitive condition is to have no holes posterior to the eye (except for the ear). This is called the anapsid condition (meaning “without holes”, Fig. 2B). Turtles were previously regarded as being the only extant anapsids, but recent studies suggest that turtles are actually diapsids that have secondarily closed their temporal fenestrae. The derived condition, found in essentially all living reptiles, is for the skull to possess two holes posterior to the eye – this is called the diapsid condition (meaning “two holes”, Fig. 2C). This is seen very clearly in crocodilians and tuataras. In lizards and snakes (and birds) the holes enlarge (much like in mammals), which makes them a little harder to find. | back 54 no data |
front 55 Turtles are united as a clade by several bizarre features, foremost of which is possession of a bony shell. Living non-turtle diapsids can be divided into 2 clades: lepidosaurs, which include lizards (including snakes) and two less common groups (tuataras and amphisbaenians); and archosaurs, which consist of several extinct groups (e.g. like pterosaurs, which you saw last week at the Geology Museum), crocodilians, and dinosaurs, including birds. | back 55 no data |
front 56 Recent molecular evidence has placed turtles as the sister group to __, meaning that they are most likely more closely related to birds and crocodiles than they are to other reptiles. | back 56 archosaurs |
front 57 Lepidosaurs are united as a clade by possession of a transverse cloacal opening. the exit of the digestive and urogenital tracts is a slit that runs parallel to the long axis of the body; this slit, called the vent, runs perpendicular to the long axis of the body. | back 57 lizards(w/snakes) & tuataras & amphisbaenians |
front 58 Archosaurs are united as a clade by several features, including the lower jaw (mandibular) fenestra, a hole running through the lower jaw that we saw was shared by alligators and birds in our very first lab. | back 58 ptosaurs,crocodilians, and dinosaurs, including birds |
front 59 mammals and lepidosaurs | back 59 |
front 60 1 alligator skull, 1 lizard skull, 1 turtle skull Based on the characters you see in these sketches, which two would you expect to be most closely related? Is this expectation currently viewed as the most likely correct pattern of relationships? | back 60 mostly : alligator and lizard= diapsids true, bc turtle secondarily lost not accurate bc turtles thought to be closer to crocidiles than birds or lizards |
front 61 turtle skull | back 61 |
front 62 Does the surface texture of a bird egg shell more closely resemble that of the turtle or alligator, and why? From an evolutionary standpoint, why might that make sense? | back 62 Bird: smooth/porous All: smoooth/dent Turt: smooth bird & alligator bc surface texture form of pitting and porous makes evolutionary sense bc birds and crocs more close related to eachother than either to turtle |
front 63 Describe the differences between the shoulder girdle in the turtle and the cat in the following features:
| back 63 cat: 1 large flat bone & spine outside rib cage Tur: triparte 3 bones & INside ribcage/ shoulder girdle Know bc turtle ONLY animal w/ limb girdles INside ribcage |
front 64 PLEURODIRES VS CRYPTODIRES | back 64 (SIDENECK TURTLES) -fold sideways (HIDDEN-NECK TURTLES)- fold midline of body |
front 65 What distinctive feature visible as part of the body of chelydrids is absent in other turtles? | back 65 long tail |
front 66 Slider (adult) • Map turtle (juveniles) -Keel on shell purpose and diff color | back 66 stabalize swim signal species recognition, camoflauge, hide from predator |
front 67 sea turtle and swimming | back 67 synchronous lift based, continuous, active fore not hind |
front 68 softshell turtle swimming | back 68 asynchronous, drag based, not continuous, fore and hind active v fast, not move bury in sand, long nose help burry stick nose out long neck length to stick out nose |
front 69 One of these two lineages actually belongs to the emydid clade and is closely related to animals like the slider (Station 6). Based on the structure of the hind feet, which of these lineages (tortoises or box turtles) do you think that is? | back 69 box more close to slider bc has a discernable ankle strong webbing |
front 70 Crocodilians: gavials, alligator and crocidiles why crocodilians are related to birds by comparing a croc skull to the ostrich skull available at this station and identifying the hole in the lower jaw that they share (the mandibular fenestra) | back 70 gavial- long, narrow nose crocodiles, 4th tooth in the lower jaw projects out of the mouth and is visible when the mouth is closed; this is not true in alligators. -alligators have broader snouts than crocodiles. |
front 71 crocidiles have | back 71 bony secondary palate |
front 72 Alligators have the strongest measured bite force of any vertebrate, yet you may have heard that it is possible to hold their jaws shut with one hand. Examine the lower jaw of the alligator and explain why that might be true | back 72 v weak jaw opening bc out lever for opening and closing is the same in lever v big in close and v small in open |
front 73 tuatara skeleton What is distinctive about the distribution of teeth? | back 73 tuatara’s closest relatives are an extinct group of reptiles around at the time of the dinosaurs-- rhynchocephialia diapsid 2 rows of teeth on upper and lower fit in btw shearing |
front 74 basic lizard body plan iguana- dewlap, varanids active predators gular pump, skinks regrow tail/ sex dimorphism, geckos- glide/ptychozoon toes sticky , chemelon-zygodact, Phrynosoma asio (Horned lizard); 1 jar Moloch horridus (Thorny devil) | back 74 diapsid, long tail, normal skull, usually legs w/ hind>fore, vent, sprawling limb posture, laterally compressed, bend the body side to side when they walk, squeezing air out of 1 lung while they exercise |
front 75 Zygodactylous Feet | back 75 having 2 or more toes reversed Having two toes projecting forward and two projecting backward, chameleon )2 and 3 on fore and 3 out and 2 in on hind -- woodpeckers |
front 76 tail regrow-- skinks | back 76 Skinks, like many lizards, are able to regrow the tail if it is broken off (but only once per lifetime). if the tail is grabbed by a predator. some species even have a zone of weakness where the tail can be automatically self- amputated by the lizard and left behind to distract predators. Regrown tails are not exactly like the originaldon’t have separate vertebrae for a skeleton, but instead grow a single fibrous rod- color or length |
front 77 sexual dimorphism- skink | back 77 differences in appearance between the males and females of a species male= bigger and larger head, bright orange but in jar brown fm= smaller stripped |
front 78 basilisk | back 78 Jesus Christ lizard run over water gila monster- venom, frill- fan, glass (revolutions0 no limb, anoles- horns/change color, raceruner- parthenogenic, fence lizard==== all lizards |
front 79 snake vs lizard both limbless | back 79
|
front 80 snake specializations | back 80 limblessness |
front 81 pathogenesis | back 81 A form of reproduction in which an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual, occurring commonly amonginsects and certain other arthropods. all female |
front 82
| back 82
|
front 83 Snakes | back 83 limbless, v special skull- v mobile bony strut, eat bigger than head, special teeth for venom, most nonvenom |
front 84 rattesnake wider/ robust fangs w/ venom | back 84 colubrid thinner no fangs |
front 85 solenoglyphous aposematic | back 85 retract fangs- viper bright colors are poison |
front 86 true viper pit viper elapids king cobra pythons | back 86 no pit - sense prey w/ pit - python - 1 pit poison largest, smooth pit heat detect, boidae-- series of pit organs |
front 87 All other reptiles than snakes are few lizards & several snakes | back 87 Oviparous- lay eggs viviparous |
front 88 birds | back 88 closest living relative to crocadiles Archaeosaurs- special dinosaur earliest= Archaeopteryx united by lower jaw fenestra |
front 89 Living birds have 2 clades | back 89 1- Ratites 2- Neoaves (modern) |
front 90 bird synapamorphies breastbone =sternum furculum= wishbone | back 90 NO TEETH • Reversed hallux (i.e., 1st toe) • Rearward pointing uncinate processes on ribs • Birds walk on their toes (digitigrade foot posture). They have no distinct tarsals (ankle bones); instead, tarsals are fused onto the distal end of the tibia (to form a tibiotarsus) and the proximal end of the metatarsals (which are themselves fused together, forming a tarsometatarsus) • Femur held horizontally, most leg movement at knee during walking • Fibula reduced to splint in lower leg |
front 91 archaeopteryx vs modern birds hands | back 91 A: unfused finger bones, 3 clear distinct digits Mod: fused finger bones |
front 92 archaeopteryx vs modern birds tail | back 92 a: long tail m: short |
front 93 archaeopteryx vs modern birds Pelvis | back 93 A: pubis points straight up/ forward M: pubis points backward/ down large, broad fused synsacrum |
front 94 contraction of different sets of muscles power downstroke and upstroke during flight. attachment of the furculum between the wings. During the downstroke of flight, the furculum arms are actively pulled apart by wing motion. During upstroke, the furculum arms will tend to spring back to their original shape. Why might this be advantageous to a flying bird? | back 94 conserve energy w/ spring, exert to pull apart on down stroke, but no use on upstroke |
front 95 Ratites | back 95 ostriches, emus, rheas, cassowaries, and tinamous, and are distinguished by several features related to the loss of flying ability and a shift to running habits. The ostrich egg is the biggest of any living bird (not surprising, as ostriches are also the biggest living birds!) |
front 96 ratites vs. neoavian sternum | back 96 E: no big keel on sternum, relatively straights N: curved. slanted |
front 97 ratites vs. neoavian Relative prominence of forelimbs vs. hindlimbs | back 97 Hind larger: Emu> neo Fore larger: emu< Neo think emu long legs |
front 98 precocial altricial | back 98 p= babies are able to wander around and feed themselves very shortly after hatching, precocious, even if they do tend to hang around and follow mom for a few months a= hatchlings are needy and demanding, unable to care for themselves and stay in the nest to receive food from parents,feathers and wings are poorly developed |
front 99 baby ostrich at the previous station – do you think it is precocial or altricial? What is your evidence, and why might this life history strategy be advantageous given the ostrich’s habitat and locomotor habits? | back 99 Precoicial bc feather/limbs well dvlped, not proteced by nests in trees so need to be able to flee predators |
front 100 Primary feathers are the feathers that emerge from the hand of a bird; secondary feathers are feathers that grow out of the forearm (ulna). Describe how the relative surface areas of primary and secondary feathers relate to the flight style of birds – for example, how do primary and secondary feather areas compare between the black vulture and the peregrine falcon? | back 100 1= good speed & manueverability 2nd= generating a lift vultures lift based so more 2nd, falcon fast so more 1st |
front 101 Besides the features of the skull we’ve already discussed, another feature that lets us know that birds are related to other reptiles is that birds possess scales on parts of their skin. In some places these look like standard scales (see the bird foot station later). But, the most common body covering of birds,... | back 101 .. feathers, are also really just highly modified scales. (How do we know this? Feathers and scales show similar patterns of development, an important standard for evaluating homology that we learned about in our first lab). |
front 102 Molt new feathers grow from barbs rachis calamus | back 102 New feathers grow out of a sheath at the base of old feathers, and their growth pushes old feathers out to replace them, commonly during a fairly brief period called the molt. All feathers have a central shaft and smaller shafts, called barbs, which emerge from the distal part of the shaft. The portion of the shaft from which barbs emerge is called the rachis; the portion without barbs (where the feather attaches to the body) is called the calamus. |
front 103 no data | back 103 |
front 104 What is different about the surface area of the barbs (called the vane on flight feathers) between the leading and trailing edge? | back 104 Primary: SA greating on trailing 2nd: both sides equal so not have lead/trail |
front 105 Bird Calls Mallard: Mourining Dove Sandhill Crane | back 105 m: quack- donald duck, cackling Dov: owl, quiet, cooing, pleasant crane: rubber, rubbing a ballon, vibration resonates= wide trachea embedded in sternum |
front 106 reversed hallux | back 106 big toe/ innermost digit of hind foot rvsed backwards which means that the big toe (digit 1) points posteriorly. The feet here show several modifications of this basic pattern |
front 107 Birds have no more than 4 toes on their hind feet. So, what do you suppose that makes the spur on the foot of the turkey? In male turkeys the spur is well developed, but in females it is a tiny nub, if noticeable at all. What do you think that means about how turkeys might use the spur? | back 107 spur modified scale males combat |
front 108 Notice the webbing on the duck feet. Ducks swim by rowing their feet like paddles. Which foot position of the 2 displayed (open or closed) do you think ducks use on the rearstroke of swimming, and which do they use on the forestroke? | back 108 fore: closed hind: open |
front 109 beak-bones of skull covered w/ layer of keratin modern no teeth but fossil had them heron stabbing: snipe probe soft sand invert: skimmer surface of water catch fish | back 109 - big pointed spear -long beak probes -blade shaped, lower jaw cut through water |
front 110 Ducks (including geese and swans) and fowl (chickens, pheasants, turkeys, and quail) are close relatives. ANSERIFORMS AND GALLIFORMS (DUCKS & FOWL) | back 110 Both walk well on the ground. Galliforms (fowl) tend to fly only for short distances and are typically non-migratory. In contrast, Anseriforms (like ducks) are excellent flyers and many undergo extensive migrations (e.g. Canada geese). Anseriforms are also strong swimmers that use their feet like paddles to row at or under the surface. Males of both groups are often brightly colored, and in galliforms in particular they may present elaborated feathers and perform elaborate courtship displays (e.g., peacocks). Unlike peacocks, males of the pheasant species displayed here do not flare posterior feathers for display, but instead flare out feathers in the throat region. |
front 111 close relatives kinfisher and hornbills woodpecker and toucan | back 111 toes fused at base not end= pads zygodactylus feet- and parrots |
front 112 PENGUINS, LOONS, WADING BIRDS, PELICANS, OCEAN-GLIDING BIRDS close relatives Pelicans foot, loons, and penguins all swim. Describe the differences in foot structure among these 3 groups based on our specimens, particularly noting the extent of webbing between the toes. What do these differences suggest about how penguins might swim compared to the other groups? | back 112 Pelican: all 4 have webbing peng: no webbing- aquatic flight not feet-- shown Loon: webbing on all 3 ( not halluxed) |
front 113 mammals are the only living members of a larger clade, ____which also includes several fossil ancestors and relatives of mammals (the “mammal-like reptiles” | back 113 Synapsida, synapsids are distinguished from other amniotes by the pattern of holes (temporal fenestrae) in the back of their heads (Fig. 1): synapsids have a single temporal fenestra, whereas reptiles have either no temporal fenestrae (anapsids, the primitive condition) or 2 temporal fenestrae (diapsids, a derived group that includes lizards, turtles, crocodilians, and birds) |
front 114 Mammals can be distinguished from other synapsids by several features: SEVERAL KINDS OF TEETH | back 114 hair, mammary glands, and 2 new ear bones that are derived from the bones that formed the articulation of the skull and lower jaw in other vertebrates (and, as a result, there is only 1 bone in the lower jaw of mammals). HETERODONT |
front 115 Living mammals are typically divided into three major groups: monotremes, marsupials (also called metatherians), and eutherians (sometimes called “placental mammals”). | back 115 Marsupials and eutherians are sister taxa, based on their shared possession of a distinctive type of tooth, the tribosphenic molar |
front 116 orbit vs. temporal fenestrae Dimetrodon is a synapsid, and therefore one of our distant relatives. | back 116 know where orbital stops- post orbital process temp: massive all the way back allow muscle attachment, all ontop of head |
front 117 types of teeth mammalian | back 117 heterodont carnissal: 4th upper premolar & 1st lower elaborate- sheath incisor: fronth lower jaw molar- 4 back teeth upper |
front 118 Compare the back of the skull in Dimetrodon to that in the cat. How has the size of the temporal fenestra (relative to the size of the skull) evolved over the last 280 million years between mammals and their ancestors? | back 118 cat larger -- gets bigger in modern animals |
front 119 BASAL MAMMALS: MONOTREMES | back 119 1 platypus & 2/3 echidna species of anteaters - Lay eggs! |
front 120 Platypus | back 120
|
front 121 Echidna | back 121
|
front 122
| back 122 1 temporal fenestra & Lower Jaw only made of the DENTARY-1bone |
front 123 Marsupials 2 features reproductive complete placenta- covergent evolution | back 123
|
front 124
| back 124
|
front 125 Epipubic bones
| back 125
|
front 126 - Incisors (front teeth) in lower jaw of kangaroo vs Virginia opossum: The condition of the lower incisors divides marsupials into 2 major groups: | back 126 Diprotodonts (e.g., kangaroos) have 2 elongated lower incisors (Notice: “diprotodont” translates as “two front teeth”). Polyprotodonts (e.g.,opossums) have multiple small lower incisors (Notice: “polyprotodont” translates as “many front teeth”). |
front 127 bipedal animal increase power= increase SA= increase muscle size= increase temporal fenestrae size | back 127 Forelimbs v small<<< Hind limbs (salatorial jump kangaroo) |
front 128 The kangaroo and the Virginia opossum show different strategies for expanding the area of attachment of jaw closing muscles (temporalis). Compare the skulls and lower jaws of these species and describe these different strategies (hint: remember where jaw muscles both originate and insert). | back 128 both= large bite force accomplish diff way K: big pockets in mandible for attachment of jaw muscles- pterygoid, increase SA on both sides & much bigger masseteric fossa allows attach of the masseter muscle, smaller temporal fenestra Op: no pocket, large ridge on top of skull greater SA in temp fenestra bigger bone more SA for muscle attachment |
front 129 BASAL EUTHERIAN MAMMALS: XENARTHRANS (=EDENTATES) NO teeth & strange joing ZYGAPOPHYSES | back 129 possession of a complete placenta that attaches the developing embryo to the uterine wall in the mother, allowing for nutrient supply; this placenta develops from 2 of the original membranes that contributed to the amniotic egg: the chorion and the allantois. |
front 130 xenarthrans (formerly categorized as edentates), have classically been considered the most basal clade of eutherian mammals. They include 3 seemingly disparate, but fairly familiar groups of mammals: | back 130 the sloths, the anteaters, and the armadillos. (Note that aardvarks are a distinct clade, the Tubulidentates, that are not part of this group). Armadillos are especially distinctive because they possess armo |
front 131 2 names for this group signify 2 of their most distinctive features: “edentate” Xenarthra | back 131 -means “without teeth”. only anteaters lack teeth entirely. However, no living sloth, anteater, or armadillo has incisors or canine teeth, and in many (like armadillos) the teeth have a simplified structure. - means “strange joint,” which refers to one of the distinguishing features of this group: extra articulations (called zygapophyses) between vertebrae that are not found in other mammal groups. These are present between the vertebrae of the backbone (as you’ll see shortly) and provide extra rigidity to the axial skeleton. |
front 132 similar among xenarthrans but differ from the cat (a) Facets of articulation on posterior side of vertebrae (not visible for mounted armadillo). Check the giraffe for an easier to visualize representative eutherian. | back 132 X: 2 facets on each side for the insertion of zgypophyses (total of 4) fits like a puzzle typical eurian animal- 1 facet on each side (total=2) lay on top |
front 133 similar among xenarthrans but differ from the cat pelvis | back 133 X: completely fused w/ vertabrae cat: separate |
front 134 similar among xenarthrans but differ from the cat scapula | back 134 X: v large acromian processes c: smaller y less SA |
front 135 similar among xenarthrans but differ from the cat distal humerus | back 135 x: hummerus flattened and spread out for additional SA for muscle attach, commonly seen in digging animals via CONVERGENT evolution cat: v short in lever |
front 136
| back 136
|
front 137 INSECTIVORANS- 5 clawed digits each limb mole
| back 137 mole= 1 carpal that is expanded out looks like 6th digit no claw so not digit also know not digit bc where it comes out of paw |
front 138
| back 138
|
front 139 Closely compare the upper jaw incisors of the rabbit and normal woodchuck. What is distinctive about these teeth in the rabbit? | back 139 wood pic r- 2 small inscisors behind 2 large w- large long rounded continual growth around, maloccluded (“badly fitting”, referring to teeth)not worn down enough |
front 140 CONVERGENT EVOLUTION IN GLIDING MAMMALS sugar gliders and flying squirrels have a flap of skin (the patagium) that extends between their fore and hind legs that they can spread out to form an airfoil that generates lift, slowing the rate at which these animals fall when they jump out of trees and allowing them to steer and control their heading | back 140 convergent structures because marsupials and rodents are not sister taxa, so the patagium must have evolved independently |
front 141 KNOW PICTURES | back 141 Marsupials and rodents no sister taxa |
front 142 how could we tell that these animals belong to marsupials and rodents pict, respectively? Well, as we mentioned earlier, the teeth are important features for telling what kind of mammal you have on your hands.
| back 142 1-Rodents have enamel only on anterior portion of teeth 2- rodent have iron deposits on teeth, marsupials do not 3- marsupials picture have more than 1 pair of upper inscisors, rodents only have 1 pair --- |
front 143
| back 143 more Kangaroo bc pockes= DIprotodonts |
front 144 marsupials | back 144 kangaroo opossum |
front 145 Compare the wing skeletons of the birds and bat. How do the structures that support the wing differ? (Note the hand and forearm in particular) CHIROPTERA (BATS)--the only mammals in which powered flight has evolved. They are divided into 2 major groups: Megachiropterans (fruit bats and flying foxes) and Microchiropterans (all other bats). | back 145 Bat: digits support the wing, elongated fingers, 1 forearm bone reduced not support but made into a hook at end bird: digits are not independent |
front 146 PRIMATES including humans, are believed to have bats among their closest living relatives (our likely closest relatives are the tree shrews synap: and MANY clades | back 146 (1) the presence of nails, rather than claws, at the tips of digits; (2) forward directed eyes, aiding depth perception; and (3) generalized teeth, generally indicating omnivorous diets. |
front 147 Primate clades | back 147 most basal clade is the Strepsirhini, in which the upper lip is divided. Today this clade includes only the living lemurs and lorises. All other primates are grouped together as Haplorhini, in which the upper lip is undivided. Some major haplorhine clades include the Cebidae (New World monkeys), the Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys), and Hominidae (great apes: humans, chimps, gorillas, orangutans). These latter 3 groups can be distinguished by features of the tail: cebids typically have prehensile tails that can be used to grip objects; cercopithecids have long, but non-prehensile tails; and hominds have extremely reduced tails. |
front 148 Multiple syncytin gene captures and diversity of placental structures in eutherian mammals. (a) Phylogenetic tree of mammals, with the four major clades of eutherians: (I) Afrotheria, (II) Xenarthra, (III) Euarchontoglires and (IV) Laurasiatheria (adapted from Meredith et al. [61]). The four basic types of placentation are indicated by coloured squares (the colour code corresponds to that of the boxes that frame the images shown to the right). The time of insertion of the different syncytin genes identified to date is indicated. Branch length is proportional to time (in million years, Myr). (b) Schematic colour-coded representation of the maternal–fetal interface in the four main types of placental structures. Placental types are classified from top to bottom in the order of decreasing extent of syncytialization and invasive properties. | back 148 know!! |
front 149 Examine the orangutan skull and identify the foramen magnum, where the spinal cord exits the skull from the brain. How is the foramen magnum oriented and what does this indicate about how the orangutan holds its head and back? | back 149 on bottom of skull indicate head is facing forward and back is curved |
front 150 CARNIVORANS-- bears (Ursidae), dogs (Canidae), cats (Felidae), weasels, skunks, & otters (Mustelidae), raccoons (Procyonidae) and several marine mammals (seals, sea lions, and walruses: Pinnipeds). | back 150 mainly carnivorous (meat-eating), and can be distinguished by possession of carnassial teeth, an elaboration of the 4th upper premolar and 1st lower molar into shearing teeth for cutting meat. Some carnivorans have adopted a more omnivorous diet, and in these animals the carnassials may take on a more standard, molariform shape |
front 151 Domestic dogs are closely related to coyotes – how can you tell their skulls apart? (A) POSTORBITAL PROCESS (process that is dorsal and posterior on the orbit) (B) SLOPE OF FOREHEAD | back 151 a: Coyotes larger and pointer more prominant, more SA picture dogs less SA b: Dog= bigger/deeper slope coyotes= less/shallow |
front 152 Giraffes are characterized by having very long necks. Birds can elongate their necks by either increasing the number of neck (cervical) vertebrae, increasing the length of each individual vertebra, or by using both of these methods. Compare the giraffe’s cervical vertebrae to that of the cat, which has 7 cervical vertebrae. Which method does the giraffe use? | back 152 increasing the length of each individual vertebra,bc has 7 |
front 153 ARTIODACTYLS AND CETACEANS camels (Camelidae), pigs (Suidae), deer (Cervidae), pronghorn (Antilocapridae), giraffes (Giraffidae), hippos (Hippopotamidae), and the goats, sheep, cattle, and antelope (Bovidae). These groups were once considered one of the two main branches of the group Ungulata, sister to the Perissodactyls (see below); however, recent evidence indicates that perissodactyls are actually more closely related to the elephants, hyraxes, and sirenians (manatees). | back 153 Artiodactyls are a group of 200+ mammals distinguished by a foot structure in which there is an even number of digits (2 or 4 in both fore and hind feet |
front 154 know | back 154 right |
front 155
| back 155 o Baleen (derived from modified mucous membrane): in whales with baleen, water taken in the mouth is forced back through the baleen by the tongue, sieving plankton and other tasty food bits out. Not all whales have baleen – see next bullet point!). o Teeth in odontocetes (e.g. the river dolphin) are typically homodont, simple, peg-like and are not replaced (i.e. they only have one set of teeth!). |
front 156 camels picture, antelope, and horses (domestic, but possibly escaped). Compare the upper jaw teeth (anterior to the cheek teeth) in the camelid, the antelope (gazelle,, and the horse (actually a mule, but close enough) What features distinguish each, letting you fulfill your dying quest for biological knowledge? | back 156 camelid- llama- 2 sharp incisors, 2 cannines anterior to cheek, border by diastema antelope/gazelle =0 teeth on upper jaw horse/mule picture= 6 normal incisors (2 missing on ours) |
front 157 ARTIODACTYL HEAD ORNAMENTS 3diff types | back 157 horns pictured, pronghorn and antler |
front 158 gazelle bears horns, | back 158 comprised of a conical bone core, covered by a layer of keratin (a resilient protein). Horns are typical of the bovids and the bison in the exhibit hall by the side exit of the museum); they are usually borne by both sexes, and are not shed. |
front 159 The deer bears antlers. | back 159 Antlers are comprised of bone only. However, they are shed every year and regrown. They are only in males except in caribou/reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) where they occur in most females as well. When antlers first emerge they are covered in skin (the velvet); when as mating season begins, the skin is shed and the antler bone dies; it is actually dead bone while it is used, and shed at the end of mating season. |
front 160 Finally, the pronghorn bears a special kind of horn, | back 160 in which the core is laterally compressed bone and the keratin covering is shed every year, pushed off by the new covering (so the bone is never uncovered). These horns are borne by both males and females. |
front 161 Using spikes on your head as a weapon means banging your head a lot! What structural feature helps these artiodactyls (specifically the deer and gazelle) to reinforce the bones of the head and keep them holding together on impact? (Hint: for comparison, you might also look at how head bones are held together in the perissodactyls at the next station). | back 161 gazelle and mule/deer are v convoluted so bones are interlocked more tightly for strength than the pronghorn |
front 162 PERISSODACTYLS AND PROCAVIIDS (HYRAXES) | back 162 bearing weight on the central digit of the foot, and by having a reduced, odd number of digits (3 or 1) present on the hind foot. Among living vertebrates they include only the horses, rhinos, and tapirs. They are much less diverse than artiodactyls (with only 17 living species). Horses are highly specialized runners, with their feet reduced to a single digit (the fetal burro shows this is the case even at early stages of development). Tapirs bear a small trunk on their faces – the signature of this feature on their skull is the highly recessed and enormous nostril. |
front 163 In addition to being specialized as runners, horses are also specialized for eating highly abrasive vegetation, like grasses. Compare the teeth of the mule picutre and tapir – how do they differ? (Hint – the most important difference with regard to an abrasive diet might be suggested by the teeth of the upper jaw of the mule). | back 163 Tap: picture see root, know root bc enamel end mule- v long teeth |
front 164 Look at the teeth and jaws of the hyrax – carnivore or herbivore? | back 164 herbivore eventhough has caniniform canine like incisors |
front 165 SIRENIANS (MANATEES AND DUGONGS) Order Sirenis= two families: Dugongidae (dugongs) and Trichechidae (manatees). only mammalian marine herbivores Manatees are an aquatic mammal found off the coast of Florida. The bones are very dense and massive, which are adaptations for overcoming the buoyant effects of water | back 165 What is the closest relative of sirenians? elephants |
front 166 Mammals exhibit at least 3 distinctive synapomorphies:(1) Hair(2) Mammary (milk producing) glands (3) 2 new middle ear ossicles (tiny bones): the incus (anvil) and the malleus (hammer) | back 166 malleus from articular incus from quadrate stapes had them |
front 167 salamander dissection Many amphibians have complete atrial division resulting in a 3-chambered heart, but not in this species. | back 167 no externnal ear inner, lateral line system, external gills--have lungs and are able to perform gas exchange through their skin, but larval salamanders that are wholly aquatic rely on gills to draw oxygen from water, paedomorphosis (a case of the general phenomenon called “neoteny” that we described in the amphibian lab), in which juvenile traits (like gills) are retained in sexually mature adults. neck short, limbs= ansestral state of tetrapod short to body, robust tail laterally compressed cloaca, homodont, no bony palate,4 type vertebrae, myomere largest organ =liver kindneys run long body |
front 168 Rat dissection Jaw opening muscles of mammals are highly derived compared to those of other tetrapods. The primary jaw opener is the digastric (which means “two bellies”). Immediately posterior to the masseter, the caudal belly of the digastric is exposed. This is connected by a short tendon to the cranial belly of the digastric | back 168 neck/limbs long, hair, no lateral line, anus, testes scrotum single tooth bearing jaw= dentary, MAny kinds of teeth, secondary palate, brown fat= heat protection largest= liver 2 kidney bean shapes 4 distinct heart chambers |