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Microbiology Chapter 16

front 1

What is an antibody?

back 1

(immunoglobulin) Proteinaceous antigen-binding molecule secreted by plasma cells.

front 2

What is an antigen? Distinguish between epitope and antigen

back 2

antigen: foreign material

epitope: the specific regions on an antigen recognized by specific antigen receptors, that is, the part of the antigen that fits into the antigen binding site of the antigen receptor.

front 3

What is the process that stimulates B cell proliferation and differentiation to plasma cells? (clonal selection mechanism)

back 3

  • Millions of different B cells exist, each with a different, specific antibody which they display on their cell surface.
  • If a person is exposed to an antigen then the B cell with the matching antibody will be stimulated to divide.
  • This results in a clone of cells (hence the term “clonal selection”):
    • Some become plasma cells.
      • These are called effector cells because they simply secrete the antibodies that bind to the antigen (i.e. effector antibodies).
      • They are antibody factories.
    • Some become memory cells.
      • These stay around to provide protection for a future exposure to this antigen.
      • In the future, instead of having just one B cell to respond there will be many.

front 4

What are the different mechanisms that antibodies contribute to immunity?

back 4

Effectors:

  • Effector antibodies circulate in the blood system.
  • They neutralize poisonous antigens and destroy microbes that bear antigens

Receptors:

  • The stem of the antibody is attached to the plasma membrane of a B cell.
  • Two arms search the blood and lymph for antigens.
  • The binding of an antigen to receptor antibodies triggers responses in the cells that bear antibodies.

front 5

What are cytokines?

back 5

Proteins secreted by many types of cells that regulate adaptive immune responses

front 6

explain the role of B cells, T helper cells (TH 1 and TH 2) and cytotoxic T cells.

back 6

  • Recognition phase
    • When a body cell is invaded by a bacterium, virus, antigen, etc., the body cell will display on its surface both self markers (antigens) and non-self markers (antigens).
    • T cells, which are constantly patrolling the body, will realize there is a problem.
      • Their receptors will recognize the non-self antigens on the surface of the body cell as foreign antigens.
      • This indicates that the cell has been invaded.
      • Since tissue transplant cells and cancer cells also display these non-self antigens, the T cells will realize there is a problem with these cells also.
  • Response phase
    • When T cells recognize non-self antigens, they go through aclonal selection process like with B cells.
      • The T cell with the receptor for this particular antigen is selected and reproduced in large quantities.
      • This allows the immune system to mount a massive attack on the invaded cells.
    • Two types of cells are produced:
      • Cytotoxic T cells (killer T cells): recognize and destroy non-self cells by puncturing them, causing them to lyse.
      • Helper T cells: stimulate the production of cytotoxic T cells and B cells.

front 7

Explain the difference between activity immunity and passive immunity.

back 7

Active immunity occurs when the body mounts an immune response to an antigen - effector cells and memory cells are generated.

Passive immunity occurs when a person is given preformed antibodies - no lymphocyte activation, no effector cells, no memory cells.

front 8

What is the role of natural killer cells?

back 8

  • An example of a lymphocyte, a different kind of white blood cell from phagocytes
  • Can identify virus infected cells and some tumor cells (cancer cells).
  • Kills the cell by attacking the cell membrane, causing the cell to lyse (split open).

front 9

How are anti-venoms made?

back 9

is created by milking venom from a relevant snake, spider, insect, or fish. The venom is then diluted and injected into a horse, sheep, rabbit, or goat.

front 10

Protein deficiency still occurs in many populations throughout the world. Individuals with protein deficiency can be more susceptible to diseases. Explain

back 10

  • Antibodies are protein--> from amino acids in our diets
  • Gets sick much quicker
  • Proteins tend to be more expensive: meats
  • Mixture of beans and rice are less expensive example of proteins

front 11

What is the role of activated cytotoxic T cell?

back 11

recognize and destroy non-self cells by puncturing them, causing them to lyse

These cells secrete cytotoxin which triggers destruction of the pathogen's DNA or perforin which is a protein that creates holes in the pathogens plasma membrane. The holes cause the pathogen to lyse (rupture).

front 12

What is the role of helper T cells in acquired immunity?

back 12

These cells secrete interleukin 2 (I-2) which stimulates cell division of T cells and B cells. In other words, these cells recruit even more cells to help fight the pathogen.

front 13

Immunologists:

back 13

scientists who study the cells and chemicals involved in specific immunity

front 14

Cell-mediated immune response

back 14

Immune response used by T cells to fight intracellular pathogens and abnormal body cells.

front 15

Humoral immune response

back 15

The immune response centered around B lymphocytes and antibodies.

front 16

Acquired immunity:

back 16

The body’s ability to recognize and defend itself against distinct invaders and their products

Is a “smart” system whose “memory’ allows it to respond rapidly to a second encounter with a pathogen

Is acquired over time

Antigens trigger specific immune responses• Various cells, tissues, and organs are part of specific immunity

Includes B and T lymphocytes

front 17

Adaptive immunity:

back 17

Resistance against pathogens that acts more effectively upon subsequent infections with the same pathogen.

front 18

Opsonization

back 18

The coating of pathogens by proteins called opsonins, making them more vulnerable to phagocytes

front 19

T lymphocytes

back 19

(T cell) Lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and acts primarily against endogenous antigens in cell-mediated immune responses.

front 20

B Lymphocytes

back 20

(B cell) Lymphocyte that arises and matures in the red bone marrow in adults and is found primarily in the spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow, and Peyer's patches of the intestines and that secretes antibodies.

front 21

Lymphocyte

back 21

Type of small agranulocyte, which originates in the red bone marrow and has nuclei that nearly fill the cell.

front 22

Antigen

back 22

Molecule that triggers a specific immune response.

foreign material

front 23

Lymphatic System

back 23

is a network of lymph capillaries and larger vessels that empty into the circulatory system

front 24

Lymphatic Vessels

back 24

tubes that conduct lymph

front 25

Lymphoid cells

back 25

Develop from stem cells in the red bone marrow

Includes lymphocytes, the smallest of the leukocytes

B lymphocytes(B cells)

T lymphocytes(Tcells)

front 26

Lymph

back 26

Fluid found in lymphatic vessels that is similar in composition to blood serum and intercellular fluid.

front 27

Lymph Nodes

back 27

Organs that monitor the composition of lymph

  • These nodes essentially “filter” the lymph.
    • They are lined with macrophages and lymphocytes, which recognize and destroy pathogens (viruses and bacteria).
  • The nodes swell during certain diseases as a result of the accumulation of now-dead lymphocytes, macrophages, and infected cells.

front 28

Spleen

back 28

Similar function as lymph nodes, except that it filters the blood

front 29

Tonsils

back 29

Patches of tissue with large numbers of lymphocytes

front 30

Mucosa-associated lymphoid disease [MALT]:

back 30

made up of peyers patches, the appendix, and the tonsils. It protects passages that are open to the exterior from the never-ending onslaughts of foreign matter entering them

front 31

Antibodies:

back 31

(immunoglobulin) Proteinaceous antigen-binding molecule secreted by plasma cells.

front 32

B Cell receptor [BCR]:

back 32

Antibody integral to the cytoplasmic membrane and expressed by B lymphocytes.

front 33

Memory B Cells

back 33

B lymphocyte that migrates to lymphoid tissues to await a subsequent encounter with antigen previously encountered.

front 34

Agglutination

back 34

Aggregation (clumping) caused when antibodies bind to two antigens, perhaps hindering the activity of pathogenic microorganisms and increasing the chance that they will be phagocytized.

front 35

Neutralization

back 35

Antibody function in which the action of a toxin or attachment of a pathogen is blocked.

front 36

Cytotoxic T cells:

back 36

(Tc cell, CD8 cell) In cell-mediated immune response, type of cell characterized by CD8 cell-surface glycoprotein; secretes perforins and granzymes that destroy infected or abnormal body cells.

front 37

Helper T cells

back 37

(Th cell, CD4 cell) In cell-mediated immune response, a type of cell characterized by CD4 cell-surface glycoprotein; regulates the activity of B cells and cytotoxic T cells.

front 38

CD8:

back 38

(cytotoxic T cell, Tc cell) In cell-mediated immune response, type of cell characterized by CD8 cell-surface glycoprotein; secretes perforins and granzymes that destroy infected or abnormal body cells.

front 39

Cytokines:

back 39

Proteins secreted by many types of cells that regulate adaptive immune responses

front 40

Interleukins [ILs]:

back 40

Immune system cytokines that signal among leukocytes

front 41

Chemokines:

back 41

An immune system cytokine that signals leukocytes to rush to the site of inflammation or infection and activate other leukocytes.

front 42

Autoantigens:

back 42

Antigens on the surface of normal body cells.

front 43

Clonal Selection:

back 43

In antibody immunity, recognition and activation only of B lymphocytes with BCRs complementary to a specific antigenic determinant.

front 44

Major Histocompatibility Complex [MHC]:

back 44

A cluster of genes, located on each copy of chromosome 6 in humans, that codes for membrane-bound glycoproteins called major histocompatibility antigens.

Important in determining the compatibility of tissues in successful grafting

front 45

MHC class 1:

back 45

Found on all cells except red blood cells

front 46

MHC class 2

back 46

Found on B-cells and antigen-presenting cells

front 47

Plasma cells

back 47

B cells that are actively fighting against exogenous antigens and secreting antibodies.

front 48

Phagolysosome:

back 48

APC internalizes the invading pathogen and enzymatically digests it into smaller antigenic fragments which are contained within a phagolysosome

Phagolysosome fuses with a vesicle containing MHCII molecules

front 49

CD4:

back 49

Distinguishing cytoplasmic membrane protein of helper T cells, which is the initial binding site of HIV.

front 50

CD4 cell:

back 50

(helper T cell, Th cell) In cell-mediated immune response, a type of cell characterized by CD4 cell-surface glycoprotein; regulates the activity of B cells and cytotoxic T cells.

front 51

Dendritic cells

back 51

Cells of the epidermis and mucous membranes that devour pathogens.

front 52

Anti-venoms:

back 52

biological product used in the treatment of venomous bites or stings.

Antivenom is created by milking venom from a relevant snake, spider, insect, or fish. The venom is then diluted and injected into a horse, sheep, rabbit, or goat.

front 53

Class-switching:

back 53

The process in which a plasma cell changes the type of antibody Fc region (stem) that it synthesizes and secretes.

front 54

Adaptive immunity:

back 54

attacks particular foreign substances and provides body's 3rd line of defense

front 55

Fc Region:

back 55

The stem region of an antibody.

front 56

IgA:

back 56

The antibody class most commonly associated with various body secretions, including tears and milk. IgA pairs with a secretory component to form secretory IgA.

front 57

IgG:

back 57

The predominant antibody class found in the bloodstream and the primary defender against invading bacteria.

front 58

IgM:

back 58

The second most common antibody class and the predominant antibody produced first during a primary humoral immune response.

front 59

IgD:

back 59

A membrane-bound antibody molecule found in some animals as a B cell receptor.

front 60

IgE:

back 60

Signal antibody molecule that triggers the inflammatory response, particularly in allergic reactions and infections by parasitic worms.

front 61

Antigenic determinant:

back 61

(epitope) the three- dimensional shape of a region of an antigen that is recognized by the immune system.

The part of the antigen that is recognized

front 62

Endogenous antigen:

back 62

Antigen produced by microbes that multiply inside the cells of the body.

front 63

Tr cell:

back 63

(regulatory T cell, suppressor T cell) Thymus-matured lymphocyte that serves to repress adaptive immune responses and prevent autoimmune diseases.

front 64

Clonal deletion:

back 64

Process by which cells with receptors that responds to autoantigens are selectively killed via apoptosis.

front 65

Secretory IgA:

back 65

The combination of IgA and a secretory component, found in tears, mucous membrane secretions, and breast milk, where it agglutinates and neutralizes antigens.

front 66

Exogenous antigen:

back 66

Antigen produced by microorganisms that multiply outside the cells of the body.

front 67

T-independent antigens:

back 67

Large molecules with repeating subunits that trigger an antibody immune response without the activation of T cells.

front 68

Antigen-Binding site:

back 68

Site formed by the variable regions of a heavy and light chain of an antibody.

front 69

Regulatory T-cell:

back 69

(Tr cell, suppressor T cell) Thymus- matured lymphocyte that serves to repress adaptive immune responses and prevent autoimmune diseases.

front 70

Artificially acquired passive immunotherapy:

back 70

Treatment in which patient receives via injection preformed antibodies in antitoxins or antisera, which can destroy fast-acting and potentially fatal antigens, such as rattlesnake venom.

front 71

Artificially acquired active immunity:

back 71

occurs when person is given a vaccine

front 72

Naturally acquired active immunity

back 72

occurs when a person suffers through the symptoms of an infection.

front 73

Naturally acquired passive immunity

back 73

occurs when a mother’s antibodies enter fetal circulation.

front 74

Memory T cell:

back 74

Type of T cell that persists in lymphoid tissues for months or years awaiting subsequent contact with an antigenic determinant matching its TCR, at which point it produces cytotoxic T cells.

front 75

Th cell:

back 75

(helper T cell, CD4 cell) In cell-mediated immune response, a type of cell characterized by CD4 cell-surface glycoprotein; regulates the activity of B cells and cytotoxic T cells.

front 76

Apoptosis:

back 76

Programmed cell suicide.

front 77

Granzyme:

back 77

Protein molecule in the cytoplasm of cytotoxic T cells that causes an infected cell to undergo apoptosis.

front 78

CD95 pathway:

back 78

In cell-mediated cytotoxicity, pathway involving CD95 protein that triggers apoptosis of infected cells.

front 79

Epitope:

back 79

(antigenic determinant) The three- dimensional shape of a region of an antigen that is recognized by the immune system.

front 80

Interferons [IFs]:

back 80

Protein molecules that inhibit the spread of viral infections.

front 81

Memory response:

back 81

The rapid and enhanced immune response to a subsequent encounter with a familiar antigen.

front 82

Tc cell:

back 82

(cytotoxic T cell, CD8 cell) In cell-mediated immune response, type of cell characterized by CD8 cell-surface glycoprotein; secretes perforins and granzymes that destroy infected or abnormal body cells.

front 83

Perforin:

back 83

Protein molecule in the cytoplasm of cytotoxic T cells, which forms channels [pores] (perforations) in an infected cell's membrane.

front 84

Naturally acquired active immunity:

back 84

Type of immunity that occurs when the body responds to exposure to antigens by mounting specific immune responses.

front 85

Naturally acquired passive immunity:

back 85

Type of immunity that occurs when a fetus, newborn, or child receives antibodies across the placenta or within breast milk.

front 86

T-independent antibody immunity:

back 86

Adaptive immune response resulting in immunoglobulin production following cross-linking of BCRs on numerous B cells and lacking involvement of helper T cells.

front 87

Opsonin:

back 87

Antimicrobial protein that enhances phagocytosis.

front 88

Primary response:

back 88

The slow and limited immune response to a first encounter with an unfamiliar antigen.

front 89

Secondary immune response:

back 89

Enhanced immune response following a second contact with an antigen.

front 90

T-dependent antibody immunity:

back 90

Adaptive immune response resulting in immunoglobulin production that requires the action of a specific helper T cell (Th2).

front 91

Antigen-presenting cell [APC]:

back 91

Dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells, which process antigens and activate cells of the immune system.

front 92

Antibody immune Response [humoral immune response:

back 92

The immune response centered around B lymphocytes and antibodies

front 93

Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxity [ADCC]:

back 93

Process whereby natural killer lymphocytes (NK cells) lyse cells covered with antibodies.

front 94

Growth factor:

back 94

Organic chemical, such as a vitamin, required in very small amounts for metabolism. In immunology, an immune system cytokine that stimulates stem cells to divide, ensuring that the body is supplied with sufficient leukocytes of all types.

front 95

Synapse:

back 95

In immunology, the interface between cells of the immune system that involves cell-to-cell signaling

front 96

T-dependent antigens:

back 96

Molecules that stimulate an immune response only with the involvement of a helper T cell.

front 97

Artificially acquired active immunity:

back 97

Type of immunity that occurs when the body receives antigens by injection, as with vaccinations, and mounts a specific immune response

front 98

T cell receptor [TCR]:

back 98

Antigen receptor generated in the cytoplasmic membrane of T lymphocytes.

front 99

Tumor necrosis factor [TNF]:

back 99

An immune system cytokine secreted by macrophages and T cells to kill tumor cells and to regulate immune responses and inflammation.

front 100

T cell Pathway

back 100

  • T-cells can either directly destroy the microbes or use chemical secretions to destroy them.
  • At the same time, T cells stimulate B cells to divide, forming plasma cells that are able to produce antibodies and memory B cells.
  • If the same antigen enters the body later, the memory B cells divide to make more plasma cells and memory cells that can protect against future attacks by the same antigen.
  • When the T cells activate (stimulate) the B cells to divide into plasma cells, this is called antibody-mediated immunity.

front 101

Cytotoxic T cell pathway

back 101

  • The cytotoxic T cells are capable of recognizing antigens on the surface of infected body cells.
  • The cytotoxic T cells bind to the infected cells and secrete cytotoxins that induce apoptosis (cell suicide) in the infected cell and perforins that cause perforations in the infected cells.
  • Both of these mechanisms destroys the pathogen in the infected body cell.

front 102

antibody function

back 102

Activation of complement

Stimulation of inflammation

Agglutination: so they can’t spread apart and to make it easier for phagocytosis

Neutralization

Opsonization