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Biology Practical 2

front 1

Monoecious

back 1

having both male and female reproductive parts on the same individual

front 2

Dioecious

back 2

having male and female reproductive parts on separate indiviuals

front 3

integument

back 3

protective layer around the ovule; becomes the seed coat

front 4

pollen grain

back 4

in seed plants starts as a microspore and a gametophyte forms inside

front 5

pollen tube

back 5

male gamete type travel to the ovule through this (fallopian tube)

front 6

tracheids

back 6

a type of cell found in xylem; at maturity the cell is dead/hollow allows for movement of water and salts through the roots

front 7

lignin

back 7

in organic substance that is one of the main components of wood

front 8

fiber cells

back 8

cells in the xylem that are lignified and offer support

front 9

parenchyma

back 9

type of ground tissue; unspecialized plant tissue; makes up the bulk of the soft parts of the plant (cortex; pith;mesophyl)

front 10

sieve tube elements

back 10

cells of the phloem that conduct carbohydrates from leaves to the rest of the plant

front 11

cambium

back 11

thin layer to meristematic tissue

produces phloem on its outer surface

xylem on the inner surface

and increases the diameter of the stem/trunk

front 12

vascular bundles

back 12

groups of xylem and phloem cells

front 13

cork cells

back 13

cells that make up nonliving water resistant tissues

bark of the tree

front 14

cork cambium

back 14

layer of meristamatic tissue that becomes cells that become bark

front 15

rhizome

back 15

a modified underground stem

front 16

staminate cones

back 16

male strobili of the gymnosperms; where microsporangia/spore are formed

front 17

ovuliferous

back 17

females strobili of gymnosperms; contains megasporangia/ megaspores; then the megametaphyte and egg; eventually fertilized embryo

front 18

megaphylls

back 18

part of the female cone; modified leaves that bear megasporangia

front 19

micropyle

back 19

small gap in the integument surrounding the ovule; where male gametes enter to fertilize the egg

front 20

deciduous

back 20

plants that shed leaves at the end of the growing season

front 21

evergreens

back 21

plants that fully persist throughout the year

front 22

megasporocyte

back 22

cell that reduces megaspores

front 23

resin duct

back 23

tube in the stem or leaf

lined with cells that secrete resin

front 24

monoecious vs dioecious

back 24

mono- sex parts on the same tree (evergreens); pollen=sperm and cone=egg

dio-sex parts on separate individuals sporophyte-->sporophyll-->sporangia

front 25

Evolution of Seed and Vascular Tissues

back 25

Seed: composed of female gametophyte and egg cell within; prior to fertilization; embryo w/in seed in nourished by female gametophyte tissues that also serves as protective coat (integument of ovule); composed of 3 different genomes

Vascular tissues: (roots) serve two main functions

1)anchoring plant to substrate

2)absorption of water and nutrients from the soil

front 26

Phylum Cycadophyta

back 26

-dioecious

-mega/micro(female/male): sprorophyte; sporophyll; sporangia

front 27

Phylum Ginkophyta

back 27

-dioecious

-distinctive leaf and twig

-favor male plants because the fleshy seeds of the female trees tend to rot and small bad when fall

front 28

Phylum Coniferophyta

back 28

-pine trees; evergreens (cedar; juniper;spruce)

-leaves are modified; needles that produce resin

-monoecious (both genders same plant)

front 29

phylum Gnetophyta

back 29

-dioecious

-double fertilization: process involves the joining of a female gametophyte (megagametophyte, also called the embryo sac) with two male gametes (sperm)

**only gymnosperm phylum to have double fertilization

front 30

Scientific names of Species studied in Lab

back 30

-Zamia sp. Phylum Cycadophyta

-Gingkio sp. Phylum Ginkgophyta

-Pinus sp. Phylum Coniferophyta

-Ephedra trifurca sp. Phylum Gnetophyta

front 31

Difference in male and female cones in Phylum Conierophyta Pinus sp.

back 31

male: softer cone; produces pollen(sperm); smaller; deteriorates quickly(2 sperms cells; on fertilizes egg other sperm nucleus is absorbed)

female: gametophyte; megasporocyte produces 4 megaspore cells (3 abort/ 1 develops)

front 32

Succulents

back 32

thick fleshy parts that help store water in dry environments

front 33

Pollinators

back 33

animals that move pollen from anthers to the stigma of the flower

front 34

Flowers are comprised of 4 rings (modified leafs)

back 34

-sepals: outer whorl of the flower

-petals: colorful; attract pollinators

-stamens: contain microsporangia; includes a filament that supports the anther

-carpels: contain megasporangia; composed of stigma; style; ovary (contains ovules)

-pistil: two of more carpels fused together

front 35

coevolution

back 35

Example: flowers and pollinators

-when two or more species evolve together

front 36

stigma

back 36

top most part of the pistil where pollen lands and germinates

front 37

double fertilization

back 37

-pollen first germinates the stigma and produces pollen tube that penetrates(germinates) the style and enters the ovary to fertilize the female gametophyte (egg)

front 38

synergid (double fertilization)

back 38

A cell of the female gametophyte. There are two and they are located at the micropyle end of the embryo sac and near the egg. These cells help guide the pollen tube. The pollen tube grows towards and into one of these cells, the cell dissolves, the pollen tube stops growing and the sperm is released.

front 39

polar nuclei (double fertilization)

back 39

A cell of the female gametophyte. There are two. They fuse with one of the male sperm to form 3n (triploid) endosperm (nutritive tissue of the seed).

front 40

Epidermis

back 40

The outer most layer of the plant, may have. May be covered by the cuticle.

front 41

Cortex

back 41

The layer of tissue between the epidermis and the endodermis and vascular tissue of the plant. Used in starch storage and in the uptake of water and minerals.

front 42

Starch Granule

back 42

Glucose is water soluble and cannot be stored easily by plants. The glucose molecules produced during photosynthesis are combined to form this semi-crystalline structure

front 43

Atactostele

back 43

A type of eustele found in monocots. Vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem.

front 44

Pith

back 44

Soft spongy tissue in the center of the stem. Parenchyma cells make up this tissue

front 45

Parenchyma

back 45

A type of ground tissue. These unspecialized cells make up a bulk of the plant biomass including the pith, cortex, and mesophyll

front 46

Mesophyll

back 46

In dicot leaves the layer of tissue just under the upper epidermis. The cells contain many chloroplasts. These cells are made of chlorenchyma cells (parenchyma cells with chloroplasts).

front 47

Parts of the flower

back 47

Carpel: Stigma; style ; and ovary

Stamen: Anther and filament

Petal

Ovule

Receptacle

Sepal

front 48

Difference between monocot and diocot

back 48

Mono: 1 cotyledon; fibrous roots; Actactostele (complex vascular bundles); parallel veins; floral X3

Dio: 2 cotyledons; taproot roots; Eustele ( vascular bundles in ring); netlike veins; floral X4 or 5

front 49

Importance of structures in plant leaves

back 49

structure and function

epidermis: waxy cucticle prevents water loss

stomata: allows water and gas exchange with the mesophyll; control by guard cell via turgor/pressure

parenchyma cells: site of photosynthesis

front 50

Eudicots Parenchyma cells

back 50

-differentiated into

palisade parenchyma:layer of tissue just under the upper epidermis. The cells contain many chloroplasts. These cells are made of chlorenchyma cells (parenchyma cells with chloroplasts)

spongy parenchyma: layer of tissue just above the lower epidermis. These cells contain fewer chloroplasts and are less tightly spaced to allow for diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide during respiration and photosynthesis

front 51

Importance of Storage Structures

back 51

-energy storing molecules (starch) overproduced and stored for limited time resources

-typically subterranean

-modified root, stem, or leaf tissue

front 52

Mycelium

back 52

the vegetative part of the fungus made up of many hyphae

front 53

hyphae

back 53

are threadlike filaments

front 54

Chytrid

back 54

group of primitive fungi that have flagellated zoospores; and are never filamentous

found in aquatic systems

often parasitic

front 55

Saprobic

back 55

describes an organisms that feeds on nonliving or decaying matter

secretes digestive enzymes and absorbs and digested material

front 56

Coenocytic

back 56

containing multiple nuclei in one cell

front 57

Septate

back 57

having dividers between cells

front 58

Haustoria

back 58

the appendages (in parasitic fungi) that penetrate the hosts tissue

front 59

Sporangia (fungi)

back 59

spore producing structures

front 60

Gametangia (fungi)

back 60

Gametate producing structure

front 61

Fruiting bodies (fungi)

back 61

a multicellular structure that contains spore-producing structures

front 62

Plasmogamy

back 62

fusion of the cytoplasm of two of more cells in fungi

front 63

Karyogamy

back 63

fusion of two cell nuclei in fungi

front 64

Dikaryon

back 64

having two nuclei in a cell in fungi

front 65

Heterokaryotic

back 65

having multiple genetic different nuclei in one cell (fungi)

front 66

Ectomycorrhizae (fungi)

back 66

fungi that for a symbiotic relationship with plants

fungus lives outside the roots of the plants

front 67

Endomycorrhizae (fungi)

back 67

symbiotic relationship with plants

fungus lives on the inside of the roots of the plant

front 68

Zygospore (fungi)

back 68

a thick walled spore that is formed during sexual reproduction

front 69

Sporangiosphores (fungi)

back 69

stalk that holds a sporangium

front 70

Ascus

back 70

A sac-shaped structure that produces spores

Occurs during sexual reproduction

front 71

Asocarp

back 71

large fruiting body that contain asci

front 72

Conidiophores

back 72

branched hypae that bear conidia

occurs during asexual reproduction in the Ascomycota

front 73

Condia

back 73

in the Ascomycota a asexual produce fungal spore

front 74

Basidium

back 74

A club shaped structure that bears spores

occurs during sexual reproduction

front 75

Basidiocarps

back 75

large fruiting bodies that bear basidia

front 76

Cell Wall (Fungi)

back 76

Made up of Chitin

front 77

Characteristics of Fungi

back 77

-decomposers (saprobes) chemoautotrophic

-feed by releasing enzymes into the environment and absorbs predigested organic compounds

-inhabit all environments

-non motile

-have no chlorophyl

-most are choenocytic and have multiple nuclei within a single cytoplasm (except for yeast)

-alteration of generations (haploid dominant)

front 78

Septate Vs. Aseptate

back 78

Septate: cells divided by cell walls; cell walls perforated

Aseptate: no cells walls between cells; multinucleate

front 79

Lichens and Symbiosis

back 79

-mutualism between cyanobacterium or green algae

-benefits of he algae is protected (housed) receive nutrients from the fungus

-benefits of fungus: photosynthetic sugars provided from algae

Growth forms: crustose (crusty); foliose (foliaged); fruticose (moss)

front 80

Sexual reproduction in Fungi

back 80

-most fungi reproduce sexually

-chitrid fungi: occurs by fusion of motile gametes to form a zygote

-other phyla: involves fusion of gametangia (fruiting bodies: releases sexual spores)

  • Zygomycota (zygote fungi)
  • Ascomycota (sac fungi)
  • Basidiomycota (club-shaped fungi)

front 81

Difference between 4 Phyla of fungi and characteristics

back 81

Chytridomycota: mostly aquatic; many are parasitic on protists, plants, and animals; flagellated zoospores and gametes

Zygomycota: aseptate; sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction ex: bread mold (rhizopus)

Ascomycota: sac fungi; septate; sexually reproduced one round of meiosis followed by one round of mitosis; forms spores in asci (sacs)

Basidiomycota: club fungi; septate hypea; club shaped; basidiocarp has gills that house the basidia where basidospores are produced; long lived dikaryotic phase (shrooms; toadstools; rusts; shelf fungi; puffballs)

front 82

Parazoa (animal)

back 82

animals of this group DO NOT HAVE: tissues; organs; symmetry; gastrulation during embryonic development; Phyla Porifera is the only subkingdom

front 83

Metazoa (animal)

back 83

animals of this group DO HAVE: tissues; organs; symmetry; gastrulation during embryonic developments; includes all animals not in parazoa

front 84

Diploblastic (animal)

back 84

having two embryological germ layers

1) ectoderm

2)endoderm

front 85

Radial Symmetry (animal)

back 85

body plane of organism that can be divided into two mirror halves by a plane passing through any angle along the central axis

front 86

Ectoderm

back 86

outermost tissue layer

gives rise to the nervous system

front 87

Endoderm

back 87

innermost tissue layer

gives rise respiratory and digestive systems

front 88

Triploblastic

back 88

three embryological germ layers

1)endoderm

2)mesoderm

3)ectoderm

front 89

Bilateral symmetry

back 89

symmetry that can be divided into left and right halves along the central axis

include all the triploblastic animals in lab

front 90

Mesoderm

back 90

middle layer

gives rise to connective tissue; muscles/bones; and circulatory system

front 91

Cephalization

back 91

the concentration of neuro and sensory organs towards the anterior region of the body

front 92

nerve cord

back 92

a hollow dorsal tract contain nerve tissue

front 93

incurrent pore

back 93

openings where water enter into the spongeocoel also called: ostium

front 94

spongeocoel

back 94

in Porifera the central cavity of the sponge

front 95

excurrent opening

back 95

water exists

also called the: osculum

front 96

choanocyte

back 96

flagellated cells lining the spongeoecoel

maintain the flow of water through the sponge and capture food

aka: collar cells

front 97

Amoebocytes

back 97

cells that phagocytize food captured by choanocytes

food distributed all over

all cells that look like ameobo

front 98

mesohyl

back 98

the gelatinous matrix between the outermost layer of cells and choanocytes

amoebocytes travel in this

front 99

spicules

back 99

needle like fibers that give structures to the sponge

can be made of CaCO3 and silica

front 100

gastrovascular cavity

back 100

gastro: gut

vascular: circulation

organ that forms both ^

front 101

epidermis

back 101

the outermost layer of tissue

develops the ectoderm

front 102

polyp

back 102

one of the two body planes of Cnidarian

sessile attached at foot to substrate

hollow cylindrical body

front 103

medusa

back 103

one of the two body planes of Cnidarian

motile=moves

dome or umbrella shape

typical jellyfish

front 104

Cnidocytes

back 104

stinging cells in Cnidarian

front 105

Cnidae

back 105

capsule like organelles that release the nematocyst (venom)

front 106

nematocyst

back 106

barbed hollow coiled tube in Cnadocytes

injects toxin into prey

front 107

hermaphrodites

back 107

having both female and male reproductive organs

front 108

gemnules

back 108

cluster of cells made of ameobocytes

surrounded by spicules that develops into a new individual

asexual reproduction

front 109

hypostome

back 109

elevated mound of tissue that contains the mouth opening

front 110

spermatozoa

back 110

mature male gamete (sperm)

front 111

Gastrodermis

back 111

in Cnidarian the inner layer of the gastrovascular cavity

front 112

Ova

back 112

the female reproductive cell (egg)

front 113

Mesoglea

back 113

the gelatinous material that separates inner and outer cell layers

front 114

proglottids

back 114

the segment of a tapeworm that contains both male and female reproductive organs

front 115

Scolex

back 115

the head of the tapeworm with specialized hook and suckers that attach the intestinal lining

front 116

Characteristic of Porifera

back 116

-Aquatic (mostly marine but some are freshwater)

-multicellular (but lack true tissues/organs)

-cells show division of labor

-filter feeders

front 117

Three body types of sponges

back 117

1) Asconoid: simple/small; the Ostia are open directly to the spongeoceol

2)Syconoid: the intermediate; Ostia open into chambers that open into the spongeoceol

3) Leuconoid: comples; Ostia open into cannals that with multiple chamber that lead to spongeoceol

front 118

Characteristics of Cnidaria

back 118

-Radial symmetry

-true tissue and primitive neural net

-Cnidocytes: stinging cells

-body structures: polyp and medusa

front 119

Body Structures of Cnidaria:

back 119

-epidermis: nerve and muscle tissue; contains the cnidocytes

-mesoglea: non cellular jelly layer

-gastrodermis: ingestion and egestion; secretes digestive enzymes into coelenterons

-

front 120

Reproduction of Cnidaria

back 120

Obelia colony: reproductive polyps and gonangia

Hydra: hermaphrodites; reproduces sexually and asexually; Gonozoids

-Cnidaria: reproductive organs develop in the lining of the gut

front 121

Reproduction of Planaria

back 121

reproduce asexually (worms did in lab)

regenerates both its anterior and its posterior

front 122

Characteristics Phylum Platyhelminthes

back 122

-marine, fresh-water, damp soil, or parasitic

-Triploblastic

-Body: solid tissue; no fluid cavity (acoelomate)

-gas and nutrient exchange must be from cell to cell (flat dorsal-ventral surface)

front 123

-Types of Platyhelminthes

back 123

tapeworms:

parasites of vertebrate digestive tracts

scolux: head with suckers and hook; attaches to intestine

no digestive system

proglottids: segments full of reproductive organs

flatworms:

-free living ex: planaria

-eyespot: phototaxis

-regeneration: asexually

flukes:

-Ex: Chlonorchis (snail, fish, human bile-duct)

-parasites with vertebrates with intricate life-cycles

front 124

Characteristics of Mollusks and Annelids

back 124

Protostomes I. Soft-bodied Invertebrates

-Bilateria (bilateral symmetry)

-Tripoblastic (3 germ layers)

-Trochophore: larvae

-Cephalization: concentration of neuro and sensory organs towards the anterior region of the body

-Segmentation (metamerism) repetition of body units

front 125

Phylum Molusca

back 125

-most soft-bodied protected by external shell made of CaCO3

-Foot: used for propulsion

-Mantale: secretes shell

-Radula : a rasping organ covered with chintinous teeth

-complete digestive system

front 126

Phylum Molusca: Class Polyplacophora

back 126

-Chitons

-marine

-graze algae from rocks ( with large oval foot)

-body made of 8 overlapping plates

-body dorso-ventrally flattened

front 127

Phylum Molusca: Class Gastropoda

back 127

(snails & slugs; nudibranches)

-marine; f/w; terrestrial

-graze on algae and plants

-torsion: during development visceral cavity twists so that mantel cavity is positioned above the mouth

front 128

Phylum Molusca: Class Bivalvia

back 128

(clams; oysters; mussels; scallops)

-marine and f/w

-laterally compressed body between two valves (shells)

-lack: eyes;radula; suspension feeders

-gills function in gas exchange and feeding

front 129

Phylum Molusca: Class Ce phalopoda

back 129

"head foot"

(squid; octopuses, and nautiluses)

-marine: fast; voracious predators

-foot modified as tentacles

-move backward; by water jet propulsion

-shell absent or reduced to internal cuttlebone (except Natutilus retains outer shell)

front 130

Plylum Annelida

back 130

-segmented worm

-complete digestive system

-closed circulatory system

-muscle tissue for locomotion develops from mesodermal tissues

-well developed nervous system

front 131

Longitudinal and Circular muscles in Annelids

back 131

Locomotion

-Contraction of the circular muscles makes the worm thinner, but because liquid is essentially incompressible the increase in pressure forces the liquid outwards stretching the worm (becomes longer and thinner)

-Contraction of the longitudinal fibers shortens the worm, pushed the coelom liquid out to the sides; making the worm fatter

front 132

Plylum Annelida: Class Oligochaeta

back 132

-terrestrial and f/w segmented worms

-important to decomposition and soil areation (hollow diggings of the worms)

-Complete digestive system with functional regions: pharynx; esophagus; crop; intestine

-septae: partitions of body wall between segments

front 133

Annelida: Oligochaeta (earthworms) Reproduction

back 133

-simultaneous hermaphrodites (cross-fertilization)

-Fertilization takes place externally

-after mating when the eggs are shed through the female gonopore onto a collar of mucus released by the clitellum; passed over opening of seminal receptacles where stored sperm is released onto the eggs

-the collar slips off the anterior end (head) of the worm and becomes cocoon for developing embryo

-male gonopores (segment 15) sperm exists during mating and stored in seinal receptacles (segments 9&10)

front 134

Phylum Annelida: Class Polychaeta

back 134

(mostly marine segmented worms)

-"many setae" parapodia used in locomotion

-each parapodium has setae (bristles) made of chitin

-parapodium function as gills in some species

-external fertilization

Ex: Lugworm and Nereis (clam worm)

front 135

Plylum Annelida: Class Hirudinea

back 135

(leeches)

-f/w and moist terrestrial habitats

-blood sucking parasite

-feed infrequently; engorge themselves then digest slowly

-reduced circulatory system

-simultaneous hermaphrodites

-develops w/in cocoon

front 136

Characteristics of Nematodes and Arthropods

back 136

Protostomes II. Animals with Ecdysis

-common ancestor that evolved a relatively hardened exoskeleton that does not grow with the organism;has to be shed and regrown periodically

front 137

Phylum Nematoda

back 137

(roundworms)

-most abundant and widespread animals in the world

-habitat: aquatic; damp soil; parasitic (plants & animals)

-complete digestive tract with mouth and anus

-no circulatory system

-longitudinal muscles only

front 138

Symbiotic relationship of Nematodes

back 138

Parasitic worms

Ascaris- large intestinal parasite of pigs and humans; males have hook on posterior end

Trichinella spiralis- parasite of humans; pigs; and rats; agent that causes trihinosis; get from eating undercook pork

Wuchereria- responsible for the human tropical DZ: Elephantiasis

others: pinworm; hookworm

front 139

Phylum Arthropods

back 139

(animals with jointed appendages)

-segmented (important to specialize regions)

-open circulatory system

-metamorphosis

front 140

Metamorphosis/ molting

back 140

-change in body form that occurs as some arthropods become adults

-Ecdysis: simple form; arthropod sheds the cuticle and basically becomes a larger version of the same form ex: grasshopers; crustaceans; millipedes; centipedes

-Holometabolus: complex form; go through a pupal stage; ex: formation of a cocoon by a caterpillar that emerges into butterfly (grub-->beetle and maggot-->fly)

-H emimetabolous: begin as aquatic nymphs and show ecdysis simple metamorphosis; Ex: damselfies and dragonflies

front 141

Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Trilobita

back 141

-extinct 250 mya

-segmentated

-relatively unspecialized appendages

front 142

Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Chelicerata

back 142

-cephalothorax + abdomen

-all appendages attached to cephalothorax

-no antenea

Class Merostoma: Horseshoe crabs:

-heavily armored carapace (protection)

-Telson: tail-like appendage

-4 additional appendages

-Book gills: fan back and forth

Class Arachnida: (scorpians; spiders; ticks and mites)

-pedipalps: 2nd pair of appendages (sensing/feeding organs)

-4 pairs of walking legs

Spiders:

-fangs for injecting venom

-pedicel: where cephalothorax meets abdomen

-Spinnerets: produce silk/ webs

-Book lungs: spiracles/slits (allow gas exchange through the cuticle)

Scorpions:

-abdomen more segmented (obvious)

-stinger: subdue prey; defense

-Spiders:

front 143

Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Crustacea

back 143

-primarily aquatic (mostly marine)

-characterized by jointed appendages

-head; thorax; abdomen

-many molt through different body stages

Ex: copepods; lobster; crabs; shrimp; crayfish; barnecles

front 144

Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Uniramia

back 144

(arthropods with unbranched appendages)

-characterized with appendages with ONE branch (enable gripping of walking surfaces)

-evolved on land

-head; thorax; abdomen

-one pair of antenae

Class Chilopoda (centipedes)

-predators on small inverterbrates

-1st pair of legs: fang-like appendages

-each segment has one pair of legs

Class Diplopoda (millipedes)

-harmless decomposers: feed mainly on decaying vegetation

-emit foul smelling secretion when feel threatened

-each segment has two pairs of legs