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Microbiology First Exam

front 1

What benefits do microorganisms provide?

back 1

Decompose organic wastes

Producers in the ecosystem by photosynthesis

Produce industrial chemicals (ethyl alcohol and acetone)

Produce fermented foods such as vinegar, cheese and bread

Food preservation, flavor, biochemical recycling, vitamins

front 2

What harm do microorganisms cause?

back 2

Disease

Food blights

Spoilage

front 3

What is genus?

back 3

The first name in the scientific bi-nomenclature that is capitalized.

front 4

What is specific epithet (species)?

back 4

The second name in the scientific bi-nomenclature that is not capitalized.

front 5

Who established the system of scientific nomenclature?

back 5

Carolus Linnaeus in 1735

front 6

What does a scientific name tell us about the organism for which it is named?

back 6

It may be descriptive of the organism or it may honor a scientist.

front 7

What are the main groups of microorganisms?

back 7

Prokayotes

Viruses

Eukaryotes

front 8

Who identified the 3 domains of microorganisms and when?

back 8

Carl Woese in 1978

front 9

By what method are microorganisms classified in the 3 domains?

back 9

It is based on ribosome RNA (protein factory).

front 10

What are the characteristics of bacteria?

back 10

Prokaryotes

Peptidoglycan cell walls

Binary fission

Use organic chemicals or photosynthesis for energy

front 11

What are the characteristics of archaea?

back 11

Prokaryotic

Lack peptidoglycan

Live in extreme environments

Include: methanogens, extreme halophiles, extreme thermophiles

front 12

What are the characteristics of fungi?

back 12

Eukaryotes

Chitin cell walls

Use organic chemicals for energy

Includes molds, mushrooms and yeast

front 13

What is mycelia?

back 13

Multiple hyphae

front 14

What is hyphae?

back 14

The filaments that make up mycelia.

front 15

Which type(s) of fungi have mycelia?

back 15

Molds and mushrooms

front 16

What are the characteristics of protozoa?

back 16

Eukaryotes

Absorb or ingest organic chemicals

May be motile via pseudopods, cilia, or flagella

front 17

What are the characteristics of algae?

back 17

Eukaryotes

Cellulose cell walls

Use photosynthesis for energy

Produce molecular oxygen and organic compounds

front 18

What are the characteristics of viruses?

back 18

Acellular

Consist of DNA or RNA core

Core is surrounded by a protein coat

Coal may be enclosed in a lipid envelope

Are replicated only when they are in a living host cell

front 19

What is classified under domain eukarya?

back 19

Protists

Fungi

Plants

Animals

front 20

Who described "little boxes" or "cells" and is credited with the beginning of the cell theory of life (all living things are composed of cells)?

back 20

Robert Hooke in 1665

front 21

Who was the first to observe live mircroorganisms 'animalcules" and is called the "Father of Microbiology"?

back 21

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek in 1673

front 22

Who heated broth in open flasks with s-shaped necks disproving the spontaneous generation theory?

back 22

Louis Pasteur in 1861

front 23

What is biogenesis?

back 23

All cells arise only from preexisting cells.

front 24

What is aseptic technique?

back 24

The most important techniques that all microbiologists use. The methods that prevent contamination by unwanted microorganisms.

front 25

What is Pasteurization?

back 25

Heating which kills pathogens but does not damage the food (milk). This application of a high heat for a short time.

front 26

What is the difference between sterilization and Pasteurization?

back 26

Sterilization kills the pathogen and the host; Pasteurization only kills the pathogen.

front 27

Who showed that a silkworm disease was caused by a fungus?

back 27

Agostini Bassi in 1835

front 28

Who believed that another silkworm disease was caused by a protozoan?

back 28

Louis Pasteur in 1865

front 29

Who advocated handwashing to prevent transmission of puerperal fever from one OB patient to another?

back 29

Ignaz Semmelwise in 1840s

front 30

Who used a chemical disinfectant to prevent surgical wound infections after looking at Pasteur's work showing microbes are in the air, can spoil food and cause animal disease?

back 30

Joseph Lister in 1860s

front 31

Who provided proof that a bacterium causes anthrax and provided the experimental steps used to prove that a specific microbe causes a specific disease?

back 31

Robert Koch in 1876

front 32

What are Koch's postulates?

back 32

Pathogen must be present in all cases of disease

Pathogen must be isolated and grown in lab in pure culture

Pathogen from pure cultures must cause disease when inoculated into healthy, susceptible lab animals

Same pathogen must be isolated from the diseased lab animal

front 33

Why are Koch's postulates used?

back 33

To look for the cause of a specific disease

front 34

Who inoculated a person with cowpox virus and as a result, the person was protected from smallpox.

back 34

Edward Jenner in 1796

front 35

What is the protection from a disease called?

back 35

Immunity

front 36

Who discovered the first antibiotic?

back 36

Alexander Fleming in 1928

front 37

What is the name of the first antibiotic?

back 37

Penicillin - made from the fungus Penicillium

front 38

When was penicillin tested clinically and mass produced?

back 38

In the 1940s

front 39

What is total magnification?

back 39

Objective lens x ocular lens

front 40

What is resolution?

back 40

The ability of the lenses to distinguish two points.

front 41

In a microscope, what is either reflected, refracted or absorbed?

back 41

Light

front 42

Why is immersion oil used?

back 42

To keep light from bending

front 43

What kind of microscope has only one lens?

back 43

A simple microscope

front 44

In which type of microscope is the image magnified by the objective lens and then again by the ocular lens?

back 44

A compound microscope

front 45

What type of microscope shows a dark image against a brighter background?

back 45

A Bright-field mircroscope

front 46

True or false. In the bright field microscope, light reflected off the specimen does not enter the objective lens.

back 46

True

front 47

Which concept accentuates diffraction of the light that passes through a specimen and where direct and reflected light rays are combined at the eye?

back 47

Phase-Contrast Microscopy

front 48

Which concept uses UV light and cells may be stained with fluorescent dyes (fluorochromes)?

back 48

Fluorescence Microscopy

front 49

Where is fluorescence microscopy used regularly?

back 49

In the hospital

front 50

Using the fluorescent microscopy, how can you tell if a Syphilis test is positive or negative?

back 50

Green means positive and yellow means negative

front 51

What does an electron microscope use for illumination?

back 51

Electrons because they have shorter waves lengths and allow for greater resolution.

front 52

What are the two types of electron microscopes?

back 52

TEM (Transmission Electron Microscope) and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope)

front 53

Which electron microscope displays an image produced by electrons which are emitted from the surface of the object creating a 3 dimensional structure?

back 53

Scanning Electron Microscope

front 54

Which electron microscope have electrons that pass through a thin section of the specimen?

back 54

Transmission Electron Microscope

front 55

Which electron microscope can view specimens that have been stained with heavy metal salts and show a two dimensional structure?

back 55

Transmission Electron Microscope

front 56

What is fixation?

back 56

A process by which internal and external structures of a cell are preserved.

front 57

What is heat fixation?

back 57

Fix an air-dried thin film (smear) by passing through a flame

front 58

Why is fixation used?

back 58

To attach the microbes to the slide and to kill the microbes

front 59

In an ionic stain, basic dyes have a chromophore that is a ______.

back 59

Cation

front 60

In an ionic stain, acid dyes have a chromophore that is an _________.

back 60

Anion

front 61

When only one staining agent is used, this type of staining is called ________.

back 61

Simple staining

front 62

How do differential stains work?

back 62

It divides bacteria into separate groups based on staining properties.

front 63

What type of stain traps crystal violet-iodine complex due to a thick layer of peptidoglycan cell wall?

back 63

Gram positive

front 64

When lipids in the cell wall are dissolved by the ethanol, allowing crystal violet-iodine complex to escape, what type of stain does it depict?

back 64

Gram negative

front 65

What is the most important staining procedure and who is it named for?

back 65

Gram stain, Dr. Christian Gram in 1884

front 66

In the Gram Stain, which is the primary stain?

back 66

Crystal violet

front 67

In the Gram Stain, which is the counterstain?

back 67

Safranin

front 68

In the Gram Stain, which is the mordant?

back 68

Iodine

front 69

In the Gram Stain, which is the decolorizing agent?

back 69

Alcohol-acetone

front 70

Name the steps in the Gram Stain

back 70

1. Crystal Violet - 1 minute 2. water 3. Iodine - 1 minute 4.Alcohol - 10-20 secs 5.water 6.Safranin - 1 minute 7.water 8.Dry lens - DO NOT RUB!

front 71

In Gram+, what is the color stain after the mordant is applied?

back 71

Purple

front 72

In Gram-, what is the color stain after the counterstain is applied?

back 72

Red

front 73

Why is an acid-fast stain used?

back 73

To stain Mycobacterium, which have high mycolic acid content (waxy)

front 74

What is the counterstain used in acid-fast staining?

back 74

Methylene blue

front 75

What are cells called that retain a basic stain in the presence of acid-alcohol?

back 75

Acid-fast

front 76

What is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms?

back 76

Phylogenesis

front 77

In the Three-Domain system, what does bacteria have that the other domains do not have?

back 77

Mitochondria and chloroplast

front 78

What does the fossil record tell us?

back 78

Eukaryotic relationships

front 79

What does rRNA sequencing tell us?

back 79

Prokaryotic relationships

front 80

In Eukarya domain, which type is multicellular but has no cell wall and is chemoheterotrophid?

back 80

Animalia

front 81

Which Eukarya is multicelluar but with a cellulose wall and usually phototutotrophic

back 81

Plantae

front 82

Which kingdom is unicellular or multicellular; has chitin cell walls and may develop from spores or hyphal fragments?

back 82

Fungi

front 83

Which kingdom is considered the "catch all" for eukaryotic organisms that don't fit in any other kingdom?

back 83

Protista

front 84

What is a clone?

back 84

When a population of cells are derived from a single cell

front 85

What characteristics do all cells have in common?

back 85

Basic shape - spherical, cubical, cylindrical

Internal content - cytoplasm, surrounded by a membrane

DNA Chromosome(s), ribosomes, metabolic capabilities

front 86

What are the two basic cell types?

back 86

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic

front 87

What are the characteristics of a prokaryote?

back 87

One circular chromosome, not in a membrane

No histones

No organelles

Peptidoglycan cell walls

Binary fission

front 88

What are the characteristics of a eukaryote?

back 88

Paired chromosomes, in a nuclear membrane

Histones

Organelles

Polysaccharide cell walls

Mitotic spindle

front 89

What are the basic shapes of a cell?

back 89

Spherical, cubical and cylindrical

front 90

What are the arrangements of cells?

back 90

Pairs: diplococci. diplobacilli

Clusters: staphylococci

Chains: streptococci, streptobacilli

front 91

What are the unusual shapes of cells?

back 91

Star-shaped (Stella)

Square (Haloarcula)

front 92

Are most bacteria monomorphic or pleomorphic?

back 92

Monomorphic, only a few are pleomorphic

front 93

What is a glycocalyx?

back 93

A capsule, slime layer, or extracellular polysaccharide) is a gelatinous polysaccharide and or polypeptide covering

Outside cell wall

Usually sticky

A capsule is neatly organized

A slime layer is unorganized and loose

Extracellular polysaccharide allows cell to attach

front 94

What does the glycocalyx (capsules) do?

back 94

Prevent pahgocytosis

Enable adherence to surfaces

Prevent desiccation (dryness)

front 95

Which are more likely pathogen, much more virulent and more stable to create more bacteria?

back 95

Cells with capsules or glycocalyx

front 96

Explain the movement of motile cells?

back 96

Clockwise - toward food

Counterclockwise - away from toxins

front 97

What is fimbriae?

back 97

Fine, proteinaceous, hair-like bristles from the cell surface

Function in adhesion to other cells and surfaces

front 98

What are pili?

back 98

Pili are used to transfer DNA from one cell to another called conjugation

Found only in Gram negative cells

front 99

What is conjugation?

back 99

The transferring of DNA via pili

front 100

What is the function of the cell wall?

back 100

Prevents osmotic lysis

Made of peptidoglycan (in bacteria)

Give shape to bacteria

Protection of the cell

front 101

What is peptidoglycan?

back 101

Polymer of disaccharide (NAG) & (NAM)

Linked by polypeptides

front 102

Describe Gram-positive cell wall

back 102

Thick peptidoglycan

Teichoic acids: Lipoteichoic acid links to plasma membrane; Wall teichoic acid links to peptidoglycan

In acid-fast cells, contains mycolic acid

May regulate movement of cations

Polysaccharides provide antigenic variation

front 103

Describe the Gram-negative cell wall

back 103

Thin peptidoglycan

No teichoic acids

Outer membrane

front 104

In which type of cell wall can the glycin bridge be found?

back 104

Gram-Positive cell walls

front 105

Describe the Gram-Negative Outer Membrane

back 105

Lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins, phospholipids

Forms the periplasm between the outer membrane and the plasma membrane

Protection from phagocytes, complement, antibiotics

O polysaccharide antigen

Lipid A is an endotoxin

Porins (proteins) form channels through membrane

front 106

What is endotoxin?

back 106

Part of the cell structure; happens once the cell dies

front 107

What is exotoxin?

back 107

Excretes some toxin, the bacteria must be alive

front 108

What is the Gram Stain Mechanism?

back 108

Crystal violet-iodine crystals form in cell

Gram-positive - Alcohol dehydrates peptidoglycan; CV-I crystals do not leave

Gram-negative - Alcohol dissolves outer membrane and leaves holes in peptidoglycan; CV-I washes out

front 109

What is the periplasmic space?

back 109

The space between peptidoglycan and cell membrane in Gram+ (also outer membrane in G-)

front 110

What are two examples of atypical cell walls?

back 110

Mycoplasmas (cause walking pneumonia) - lack cell walls; sterols in plasma membrane

Archaea - wall-less or walls of pseudomurein (lack NAM and D amino acids)

front 111

What is Gram+ treated with lysosome and have their cell wall entirely removed?

back 111

Protoplasts

front 112

What is Gram- treated with lysosome and have their cell wall only partially removed?

back 112

Spheroplasts

front 113

What digests disaccharide in peptidoglycan?

back 113

Lysosome

front 114

Where can lysosome be found?

back 114

It is in every fluid in the body.

front 115

What inhibits peptide bridges from forming in peptidoglycan?

back 115

Penicillin

front 116

What do all live cells have and are only differentiated by protein?

back 116

Phospholipid bilayer

front 117

What does selective permeability mean?

back 117

Allows passage of some molecules ( H2O, gas (O2, CO2), small molecules)

front 118

What are the two types of movement across membranes?

back 118

Simple diffusion and Facilitative diffusion

front 119

What is simple diffusion?

back 119

Movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

front 120

What is facilitative diffusion?

back 120

Solute combines with a transporter protein in the membrane; does not need ATP; moving from higher concentration to lower concentration

front 121

What type of solution has no net movement of water?

back 121

Isotonic

front 122

What type of solution causes water to move into the cell and may cause the cell to burst if the wall is weak or damaged?

back 122

Hypotonic (osmotic lysis)

front 123

What type of solution causes water to move out of the cell, causing its cytoplasm to shrink?

back 123

Hypertonic (plasmolysis)

front 124

What does active transport of substances require?

back 124

A transporter protein and ATP

front 125

What does group translocation of substances require?

back 125

A transporter protein and PEP

front 126

50s and 30s subunits makes what type of rbosome?

back 126

70s which is prokaryotic

front 127

50s and 40s subunits makes what type of ribosome?

back 127

80s which is eukaryotic

front 128

What are endospores?

back 128

Resting cells

Resistant to desiccation, heat, chemicals

Bacillus, Clostridium

front 129

What is sporulation?

back 129

Endospore formation

front 130

What is germination?

back 130

Return to the vegetative state

front 131

What is phagocytosis?

back 131

Eating solids; cell eating

front 132

What is pinocytosis?

back 132

Send toxin inside cell to kill it

front 133

What do sterols make?

back 133

Antibiotics

front 134

What is endocytosis?

back 134

Phagocytosis: Pseudopods extend and engulf particles

Pinocytosis: Membrane folds inward bringing in fluid and dissolved substance

front 135

What is cytoskeleton?

back 135

Microfilabments, intermediate filaments, microtubules

Gives shape to non-cell wall; movement

front 136

What is the sum of all chemical reactions within the cell?

back 136

Metabolism

front 137

What is the breakdown of complex organic molecules into simpler ones; energy is released?

back 137

Catabolism

front 138

What is the building of complex organic molecules from simpler ones; energy is used?

back 138

Anabolism

front 139

What is an enzyme?

back 139

A type of protein which catalyzes reactions in the cell by lowering the activation energy.

front 140

What is a substrate?

back 140

The compound being acted upon by the enzyme.

front 141

What is turnover number?

back 141

The maximum number of substrate molecules an enzyme can convert to product each second.

front 142

Enzymes are

back 142

All proteins except RNAse

Catalysts

Specific to a substrate

Can have many turnovers (generally 1- 10,000 molecules per second)

Has an active site that is shaped to match a specific substrate

front 143

Co-factors are

back 143

Mainly metal ions

front 144

Summarize the enzymatice action

back 144

1. Substrate binds to active site on the surface of the enzyme

2. Temporary intermediate complex forms - enzyme-substrate complex

3. Substrate transformed (other molecule added, molecule rearranged, bond broken, etc.)

4. Transformed substrate (product or products) no longer conform to the active site, is released.

5. Unchanged enzyme is ready to react with more substrate molecules

front 145

Which factors influence enzymes?

back 145

Temperature - Low, high, (optimum minimum, maximum)

pH - optimum, effects on amino acids

Substrate concentration - saturation

front 146

Which reaction is where one substrate loses electrons (oxidation) and the other gains elctrons (reduction)?

back 146

Oxidation-reduction reactions

front 147

Which reaction often includes the transfer of both the electron and the accompanying proton (hydrogen atom)?

back 147

Dehydrogenation reactions

front 148

What is oxidation?

back 148

The removal of electrons

front 149

What is reduction?

back 149

The gain of electrons

front 150

What is an oxidation reaction paired with a reduction reaction?

back 150

Redox reaction

front 151

True or False: Oxidation and reduction are always together in a reaction.

back 151

True

front 152

What is the removal and addition of electrons to molecules?

back 152

Oxidation-Reduction

front 153

What is phosphorylation?

back 153

Adding a phosphate group - storing energy

front 154

What is dephosphorylation?

back 154

Removing a phosphate group - releasing energy

front 155

What is generated by the phosphorylation of ADP?

back 155

ATP

front 156

What is losing or gaining a phosphate?

back 156

Energy

front 157

What does the oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid yield?

back 157

ATP and NADH

front 158

What is glycolysis?

back 158

The oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid

front 159

In respiration, how many ATP are gained?

back 159

36-38 ATP

front 160

In fermentation, how many ATP are gained?

back 160

2 ATP

front 161

What is fermentation?

back 161

The partial oxidation of glucose in the absence of oxygen where the final electron acceptor is an organic molecule.

front 162

What is respiration?

back 162

The process by which molecules are oxidized and the final electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule.

front 163

In aerobic respiration, the final electron acceptor is

back 163

Molecular oxygen

front 164

In anaerobic respiration, the final electron acceptor is

back 164

Inorganic molecule other than oxygen (or rarely, an organic molecule)

front 165

What is chemiosmosis?

back 165

The generation of ATP using a proton gradient; yield of ATP high

front 166

What is the electron transport chain?

back 166

A series of carrier molecules located in a membrane which are capable of oxidation and reduction. Energy of electrons used to establish a proton gradient

front 167

What is lipid catabolism?

back 167

The breakdown of lipids (uses enzyme CoA); some components enter the Krebs cycle

front 168

What is protein catabolism?

back 168

Some can also enter the Krebs cycle

front 169

What is carbohydrate catabolism?

back 169

Energy produced from complete oxidation of one glucose using aerobic respiration.