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Chapter 22

front 1

What are the 3 key observations about life?

back 1

Organisms are suited for their environments, there are shared characteristics of life (unity), and there are differing characteristics of life (diversity)

front 2

Define EVOLUTION

back 2

"Descent with modification", the idea that current species are descendants of ancestral species that are different than themselves. This is the explanation of the 3 keys of life.

front 3

Compare the PATTERN of evolutionary change and the PROCESS of evolutionary change

back 3

Pattern - revealed by data/facts (observations of the natural world).

Process - consists of the mechanisms that produce the observed pattern of change. (these mechanisms represent natural causes of the natural phenomena we observe).

front 4

What did the Greek philosophers, before Darwin, suggest?

back 4

That life changed over time

front 5

How did Aristotle view species?

back 5

he viewed species as unchanging and believed that each form of life had a permanent place on a "ladder" of lifeforms based on complexity.

front 6

What was Aristotle's view consistent with?

back 6

The Old Testament (species designed by God, suited for environments because God made them perfect)

front 7

What did Carolus Linnaeus develop?

back 7

in order to classify life's diversity he developed a binomial format for naming species. He adopted a "nested" classification system in which similar species were grouped into increasingly general categories. (similar species in same genus, similar genera in same family, etc) (1700s)

front 8

What did Darwin base classification on?

back 8

Evolutionary relationships

front 9

Define FOSSILS

back 9

remains of organisms from the past

front 10

Define STRATA

back 10

super-imposed layers of rock covered by new layers of sediment (fossils in stratum show the organisms that existed at the time that that layer was formed)

front 11

Define PALEONTOLOGY

back 11

the study of fossils

front 12

What changes from one layer of stratum to the next?

back 12

Older stratum has fossils that are dissimilar to current life forms, and from one layer to the next new organisms' fossils appeared and old disappeared.

front 13

Who was Georges Cuvier? What did he infer?

back 13

He developed paleontology, he inferred extinctions but not evolution. (Thought each boundary between stratum represented a catastrophic event that destroyed many species in an area and that it was later repopulated by different species migrating from different areas)

front 14

Who were James Hutton and Charles Lyell? How did their work relate to one another?

back 14

Hutton was a geologist who proposed the geological features formed due to gradual mechanisms over time. Lyell proposed that the same geologic processes that happened in the past are also happening today, at the same rate. (early 1800s)

front 15

How did Hutton and Lyell's work relate to Darwin's?

back 15

Darwin proposed that if geologic change came from slow continuous actions (rather than from sudden events), that a slow and subtle process also produced biological change. He also proposed that if geologic change was a slow process that the Earth must be much older than a few thousand years like society had previously believed.

front 16

Who was Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck?

back 16

He proposed how life changes over time. He recognized that the match of organisms to their environments could be explained by gradual evolutionary change, but his mechanism was incorrect. He explained the change with "use and disuse" (parts of the body that are used get stronger and unused parts deteriorate), and "inheritance of acquired characteristics" (organism could pass these modifications to its offspring). He also believed that evolution happens because organisms have a drive to become more complex, which Darwin rejected. Darwin agreed that variation was introduced partially through the inheritance of characteristics.

front 17

What did Darwin's dad want him to do? What did he do instead?

back 17

Dad sent him to medical school, he quit to be a clergyman.

front 18

What did Darwin do shortly after school?

back 18

Was a conservation partner to captain Fitzroy on "The Beagle" in 1831, he charted the South American coastline and observed plants and animals on the shore.

front 19

What did Darwin learn from Lyell's "Principles of Geology" book?

back 19

He learned that earth couldn't be just a few thousand years old

front 20

What was Darwin's hypothesis about the Galapagos islands?

back 20

He believed that the Galapagos islands were colonized by organisms that strayed from South America and diversified to create new species.

front 21

Define ADAPTATIONS

back 21

inherited characteristic of organisms that enhance survival and reproduction in specific environments.

front 22

Define NATURAL SELECTION

back 22

the idea that individuals with certain inherited traits survive and reproduce at higher rates because of those traits

front 23

Who submitted a similar idea to Darwin's in 1858?

back 23

Alfred Russel Wallace had the same idea of natural selection and submitted for publication before Darwin. Though Wllace wanted Darwin to be known as the main architect of the idea and Darwin's book, "The Origin of Species", won over most scientists due to its logic and evidence.

front 24

Instead of saying "evolution" in his book "The Origin of Species", what did Darwin call it?

back 24

"Descent with modification"

front 25

What is the unity of life due to?

back 25

One ancestral organism

front 26

What do the different parts of a tree represent of the history of life?

back 26

The tips of the twigs represent groups of organisms living in the present day, unlabeled branches are extinct groups, and each fork of the tree is the most recent common ancestor of the lines of evolution coming from that branch.

front 27

What is the diversity of life due to?

back 27

descent with modification (evolution) over a long period of time

front 28

Define ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

back 28

the process of modifying species by breeding those with desired traits. This proves Darwin's theory because the original organism is different than the ancestors of it.

front 29

Darwin argued that a similar process to artificial selection occurs in nature. What observations did he base this off of and what inferences did these observations lead to?

back 29

Observation 1: members of a population vary in traits

Observation 2: species produce more offspring than will survive

Inference 1: those with traits that allow higher surveil will produce more offspring

Inference 2: unequal ability to survive and reproduce will lead to favorable traits over a number of generations.

front 30

Explain the connection between natural selection and over-reproducing. What does this connection lead to?

back 30

Of the many born (over-reproducing), only a small amount will survive and leave their own offspring (natural selection). There will eventually be an increase in the proportion of favorable traits in the population because throughout the generations those with the favorable traits will survive longer and reproduce more. Throughout the generations the organisms will also be an even greater match for their environment.

front 31

Do individuals evolve?

back 31

No, populations evolve over time

front 32

Will natural selection change a trait that all organisms in a population have?

back 32

No, natural selection amplifies and diminishes traits that vary in the population but cannot change a trait that all organisms have.

front 33

Darwin acknowledged that evidence for some things in his research was lacking. When were these gaps filled in?

back 33

In the last 150 years discoveries have been made that filled in many of the gaps

front 34

What happens when an organism switches to a new food source?

back 34

They adapt to be able to eat the food that they eat, this sometimes changes based on what environment they live in and what food is available.

front 35

Explain the evolution of drug-resistant bacteria

back 35

In the bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus, certain genetic varieties (STRAINS) known as methicillin-resiistant S. aureus (MRSA) are very powerful. In the past decade MRSA has become much more dangerous. In 1943 penicillin became the first widely used antibiotic, but by 1945 more than 20% of S aureus strains were resistant to it. The bacteria developed an enzyme, penicillinase, that could destroy penicillin. New antibiotics were used that were not destroyed by penicillinase but eventually the bacteria resisted it as well. In 1959 the antibiotic methicillin was used and within 2 years MRSA emerged. Some S aureus populations were able to synthesize their cell walls with a protein not affected by methicillin. These resistant individuals reproduced at higher rates and they became more common, leading to the spread of MRSA.

front 36

Explain why natural selection depends on time and place.

back 36

adaptions that are an advantage in the current environment are favored. What is beneficial in one situation may be useless or even harmful in another.

front 37

What is the main evidence of evolution?

back 37

analyzing similarities among organisms (all forms of life use essentially the same genetic code, suggesting that all species descended from common ancestors with this code)

front 38

Define HOMOLOGY

back 38

similarity resulting from common ancestry

front 39

Define HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES and VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES

back 39

Homologous structures- represent variations on a structural theme that was present in a common ancestor. Some homologous structures can only be revealed in the early stages of development and are not visible in adult organisms. One big homology in all of life is that all forms of life use essentially the same genetic code. Some homologous genes have acquired new functions, some have retained their original functions, and some have lost their function.

Vestigial structures - remnants of features that served a function in ancestors but now have little importance. These are a kind of homologies.

front 40

What type of pattern do homologous characteristics make up?

back 40

a nested pattern - all life shares the deepest layer, and each successive smaller group adds on their own homologies.

front 41

If an evolutionary tree shows that an organisms is a common ancestor of another organism, what does this mean?

back 41

More recent common ancestors are more closely related to each other. The organisms are closely related.

front 42

Explain the EVOLUTIONARY TREE

back 42

The evolutionary tree explains the morphological gaps that sometimes exist between related groups of organisms. The evolutionary tree reflects evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms and is a hypothesis that summarizes our understanding on patterns of descent.

front 43

Define CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

back 43

independent evolution of similar features in different lineages. This happens when different lineages adapt to similar environment in similar ways but are not closely related.

front 44

Define ANALOGOUS and HOMOLOGOUS

back 44

Analogous - share features because of convergent evolution. Similar function but NOT common ancestry.

Homologous - due to common ancestry but do not necessarily have similar functions.

front 45

What are fossils evidence of?

back 45

Evolution. they show the pattern of evolution, that there are differences between the past and the present, and that some organisms that existed once are now extinct. They tell us about the origins of new groups of organisms. We can also see from fossils that over tie, descent with modification produced increasingly large differences among related groups of organisms, ultimately resulting in the diversity of life we see today.

front 46

What do fossils tell us about cetaceans?

back 46

the earliest cetaceans lived 50-60 million years ago and before that most mammals were terrestrial. Fossils allow us to understand the transition from land life to sea life and let us see how cetacean limb structure changed over time, leading to the loss of hind limbs and the development of flippers and tail flukes. This fills in some other gaps between ancestral and living cetaceans. We can also see from fossils that cetaceans are closely related to even-toed ungulates (deer, pigs, camels, cows, etc).

front 47

Define BIOGEOGRAPHY

back 47

the scientific study of the geographic distributions of species.

front 48

What are geographic distributions of organisms influenced by?

back 48

multiple factors, including CONTINENTAL DRIFT (slow movement of Earth's continents over time).

front 49

Define PANGEA

back 49

About 250 million years ago all of Earth's landmasses were in a single large continent called Pangaea. Roughly 200 million years ago, Pangaea started breaking apart. By 20 million years ago the continents we know today were within a few hundred kilometers of their present locations.

front 50

What can we predict using our knowledge of evolution and continental drift?

back 50

We can predict where fossils of different groups of organisms might be found, and we can use evolution to explain biographic data. (ex: islands generally have species that are endemic, but the islands are colonized by species from the nearest mainland and eventually new species were adapted to their new environments)

front 51

Define ENDEMIC

back 51

found nowhere else in the world

front 52

What is Darwin's view on the pattern and process of evolution?

back 52

Pattern - life has evolved over time

Process - natural selection is the cause of the pattern of evolution.

front 53

Define THEORY

back 53

A theory is more comprehensive than a hypothesis. It accounts for many observations and explains a variety of phenomena. (has lots of evidence and explains a lot of things)

front 54

Is natural selection the only mechanism responsible for evolution?

back 54

No, scientists make new discoveries using a wide range of experimental approaches and genetic analysis all the time.

front 55

*What was the prevailing belief prior to the time of Lyell and Darwin?

back 55

Earth is a few thousand years old, and populations are unchanging

front 56

*Evolutionary trees are properly understood by scientists to be _____

back 56

hypothoses

front 57

*What are the four postulates of natural selection?

back 57

Variation in population, heritable variation, selection, differential survival or reproduction

front 58

*What is an accurate combination of postulates 1 and 2 (variation in population and heritable variation) of natural selection?

back 58

Heritable variation exists for traits among individuals in a population.

front 59

*What is an accurate combination of postulates 3 and 4 (selection and differential survival and reproduction) of natural selection?

back 59

Individuals experience differential success in their ability to survive or reproduce.

front 60

*Does the ability of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis cell to infect a new host depend on its drug-resistant phenotype?

back 60

No, drug-susceptible cells and drug-resistant cells are equally likely to infect a new host.

front 61

*Describe the evolution by natural selection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria in their new environment

back 61

The drug-resistance trait is an adaptation to the environment in which human hosts are medicated with the antibiotic rifampin.

front 62

*In the United States today, about half of the corn crop is genetically engineered with a protein that is toxic to corn borers, an insect pest of corn. Which of the following conditions would be necessary for evolution of resistance to the toxic protein to occur in the corn borer?

back 62

The corn borer must have or generate (by mutation) heritable variation in resistance to the toxic protein. The resistant corn borers must survive better or reproduce more than nonresistant corn borers.

front 63

*True or false? It would be difficult to assess whether the drug-susceptible or drug-resistant phenotype in a population of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was more fit in an environment without antibiotics.

back 63

True

front 64

*The theory of evolution through natural selection is considered a scientific theory because _____

back 64

it is broad enough in scope to explain many observations, it is supported by a massive body of evidence from many disciplines, and it is general enough to provide many testable hypotheses

front 65

*How would you best describes a theory in terms of observations relating to it?

back 65

They are supported by, and make sense of, many observations.

front 66

*DDT was once considered a "silver bullet" that would permanently eradicate insect pests. Today, instead, DDT is largely useless against many insects. Which of these would have been required for this pest eradication effort to be successful in the long run?

back 66

None of the individual insects should have possessed genomes that made them resistant to DDT

front 67

*What in a whale is homologous to the bones in the wing of a bird?

back 67

bones in the flipper of a whale

front 68

*What piece of evidence most strongly supports the common origin of all life on Earth?

back 68

All organisms use essentially the same genetic code.

front 69

*Members of two different species possess a similar-looking structure that they use in a similar fashion to perform the same function. What information would best help distinguish between an explanation based on homology versus one based on convergent evolution?

back 69

The two species share many proteins in common, and the nucleotide sequences that code for these proteins are almost identical.

front 70

*Ichthyosaurs were extinct aquatic reptiles distantly related to living lizards. Fossils show us that they had dorsal fins and tails, as do fish, even though their closest relatives were terrestrial reptiles that had neither dorsal fins nor aquatic tails. The dorsal fins and tails of ichthyosaurs and fish are _____

back 70

adaptations to a common environment and examples of convergent evolution.

front 71

*the vegetarian finch is genetically no more similar to the tree finches than it is to the ground finches, despite the fact that it is placed in the same genus as the tree finches. Based on this finding, it is reasonable to conclude that the vegetarian finch ____

back 71

is no more closely related to the tree finches than it is to the ground finches, despite its classification

front 72

*When Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species, he knew very little about the subject of _____, an essential component of evolutionary theory today.

back 72

genetics

front 73

*DNA sequences in many human genes are very similar to the sequences of corresponding genes in chimpanzees. The most likely explanation for this result is that ______

back 73

humans and chimpanzees share a relatively recent common ancestor.