front 1 What are the steps of hemostasis? | back 1 1. vascular spasm, blood vessel vasoconstricts
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front 2 What are the phases of coagulation? | back 2 1. prothrombin activator
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front 3 What is ADP? (related to platelet plug formation) | back 3 a potent aggregating agent that causes more platelets to stick together, so more chemicals are released, aggregating more platelets (positive feedback) |
front 4 What is thromboxane? | back 4 messenger that enhances vascular spasm and platelet aggregation |
front 5 Name a few anticoagulants. | back 5 Plavix, Aspirin, Coumadin, Heparin, Lovenox |
front 6 What is hemorrhagic anemia? | back 6 anemia related to severe blood loss |
front 7 What is hemolytic anemia? | back 7 RBC's are destroyed and removed from the blood stream before their normal life cycle (120 days) ends |
front 8 What is aplastic anemia? | back 8 the body's bone marrow doesn't produce enough new blood cells, bone marrow failure |
front 9 What is hemoglobin? | back 9 protein in RBC's that carries O2 |
front 10 What is pernicious anemia? | back 10 the inability to process iron, lack of B12 or another intrinsic factor |
front 11 What are intercalated discs? | back 11 interlocking plasma membranes in cardiac cells |
front 12 What ion is used to depolarize and initiate contraction? | back 12 Ca+ |
front 13 What ion is used to repolarize? | back 13 K+ |
front 14 What ion is used in the initial threshold depolarization? | back 14 Na+ |
front 15 Why is cardiac muscle contract slower than skeletal muscle? | back 15 to prevent tetanic contractions |
front 16 What do cardiac muscles resist? | back 16 fatigue due to the high concentration of mitochondria |
front 17 What is ischemia? | back 17 O2 deprivation |
front 18 What causes angina? | back 18 decreased blood flow, ST depression |
front 19 Where does atherosclerosis occur? | back 19 tunica media |
front 20 What are autorhythmic cells? | back 20 pace the heart, pacemaker potentials, depolarize spontaneously, only carry electrical signals, do not contract |
front 21 What % of cardiac cells are autorhythmic? | back 21 1% |
front 22 Describe the heart's electrical conduction. | back 22 SA node to AV node to bundle of his (AV bundle) to bundle branches to Purkinje fibers |
front 23 How long is the delay at the AV node and why? | back 23 0.1s to allow atria to contract completely and ventricles to fill |
front 24 What is the threshold of pacemaker potentials? | back 24 -40mV |
front 25 Describe the action potential in pacemaker cells. | back 25 1. pacemaker potential, initiated by slow leaking Na+ channels, -40mV threshold is met
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front 26 What ion causes the cross bridge cycle? | back 26 Ca+ |
front 27 Is the Ca+ intercellular or extracellular? | back 27 both, mostly extracellular |
front 28 What is depolarization? | back 28 cell becomes less negative |
front 29 What is repolarization? | back 29 cell becomes less positive |
front 30 What ion triggers contraction? | back 30 Ca+ |
front 31 How do calcium channel blockers affect the heart? | back 31 blocks the reuptake of Ca+, prolongs the contraction, reduces the heart rate, increases contractility |
front 32 What is an ECG? | back 32 measures all action potentials generated by nodal and contractile cells at any given time |
front 33 What is the normal length of a contraction cycle? | back 33 .80s |
front 34 What is the contraction cycle so long? | back 34 heart needs to gain momentum for circulation |
front 35 What is the P wave? | back 35 depolarization from SA node to atria |
front 36 What is the normal length of a P wave? | back 36 .08s |
front 37 What is a QRS complex? | back 37 ventricular depolarization |
front 38 What is the normal length of a QRS complex? | back 38 .08s |
front 39 What is a T wave? | back 39 ventricular repolarization |
front 40 What is the normal length of a T wave? | back 40 .16s |
front 41 What is the PQ interval? | back 41 SA node fires to AV node to bundle of his to bundle branches |
front 42 How long is the PQ interval? | back 42 .12-.2s |
front 43 What does a prolonged PQ indicate? A shortened PQ? | back 43 prolonged=heart block, shortened=WPW syndrome |
front 44 What is the QT interval? | back 44 time of ventricular systole, depolarization/repolarization of ventricles, ALL VENTRICLE ACTIVITY |
front 45 What long is the QT interval? | back 45 .31-.41s |
front 46 What does a prolonged QT increase your risk of? What are the symptoms? | back 46 v tach, v fib, decreased heart rate, poor circulation |
front 47 What is the ST segment? | back 47 the ventricles are contracting, blood is being pumped out of the heart |
front 48 What does ST elevation indicate? ST depression? | back 48 ST elevation=STEMI, ST depression=angina |
front 49 What part of the heart stimulates ventricular depolarization? | back 49 Purkinje fibers |
front 50 What regulates the cardiac system? | back 50 the ANS |
front 51 What does the SNS do? | back 51 cardioacceletory, increases heart rate/BP by norepinephrine/epinephrine via beta 1 receptors |
front 52 What does the PSNS do? | back 52 cardioinhibitory, slows heart rate/lowers BP, innervated by the vagus nerve by ACh |
front 53 What is a heart block? | back 53 disruption of the conduction between atria and ventricles, abnormal delay in PQ interval, indicates damage to the AV node |
front 54 What is an ectopic focus? | back 54 area in the heart that initiates abnormal beats |
front 55 What is a first degree block? Second degree block? Total heart block? | back 55 first degree-AV nodal disease, PR prolonged by .20s, second degree-1 or more but not all impulses fail, total heart block-no impulse at all |
front 56 Describe an entire cardiac cycle on an ECG. | back 56 1. atrial depolarization, initiated by SA node
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front 57 What is a junctional rhythm? | back 57 non-functional SA node, AV node paces heart at 40-60bpm, no P waves |
front 58 What is systole? | back 58 contractions of the ventricles, causes QRS complex, forces blood out of the heart into aorta, systolic pressure needs to exceed diastolic pressure before the blood will flow, lub sound |
front 59 What is diastole? | back 59 relaxation of the ventricles |
front 60 What is late diastole? | back 60 the SA node fires, the atria contracts forcing the last 20-30% of blood through the AV valves into the ventricles |
front 61 What is early diastole? | back 61 SL valves shut, ventricles relax, causes T wave, blood from the aorta and pulmonary trunk flows towards the heart, dub sound |
front 62 What is cardiac output? What is the average CO? | back 62 amount of blood pumped through the heart in 1 minute, 5.25L |
front 63 What is the formula for CO? | back 63 CO=HR x SV |
front 64 What is the constant/variables? | back 64 constant (resting) CO=output needed to maintain perfusion, variables=HR/SV |
front 65 What is stroke volume? What is the average SV? | back 65 volume of blood pumped out by 1 ventricle with each beat, 70ml |
front 66 What is cardiac reserve? | back 66 fluctuations in CO to meet increased demands, difference between resting and max CO, average 4-5 times resting CO, up to 7 times resting CO |
front 67 How do you determine SV? | back 67 SV=EDV-ESV |
front 68 What is EDV (preload)? | back 68 end diastolic volume, amount of blood in the ventricles before contraction, degree of stretch in cardiac muscle, average EDV=120ml |
front 69 What is venous return? | back 69 amount of blood returning to the heart |
front 70 How do you increase venous return? | back 70 muscle contraction, deep breathing, venous valves, slow heart rate, exercise-squeezes skeletal muscle, compresses veins, decreases blood volume, returns more blood to the heart |
front 71 How does an increased EDV effect the heart? | back 71 increased EDV increased how hard the heart has to contract to pump blood out |
front 72 What is ESV (afterload)? | back 72 end systolic volume, volume of blood in ventricle after contraction, determined by arterial pressure and contractility, pressure the ventricles must overcome to eject blood, average ESV=50ml |
front 73 What is Starlings Law? | back 73 by stretching the myocardium from the inside out, the force of contraction will be greater |
front 74 How does an increased ESV effect the heart? | back 74 increases stress on the heart, heart can wear out |
front 75 How can you increase/decrease contractility? | back 75 increase-aerobic exercise, digitalis, epinephrine, calcium channel blocker, decrease-MI, acidosis, potassium |
front 76 What regulates the heart rate? | back 76 cardiac center of the brain, medulla oblongata |
front 77 What autonomic regulation is dominant? | back 77 PSNS, cardioinhibitory |
front 78 What are baroreceptors? | back 78 monitors pressure changes in the vessels to regulate heart rate, found in the atrial/carotid reflex |
front 79 What are chemoreceptors? | back 79 monitors pH, CO2, and O2 |
front 80 What chemical from the thyroid weakens the heart? | back 80 thyroxine, causes a sustained increased heart rate |
front 81 How do beta blockers work? | back 81 blocks beta 1 receptors |
front 82 How does age affect the heart? | back 82 causes sclerosis of the valves, decline in cardiac reserve, fibrosis of the heart, atherosclerosis |
front 83 What is the difference between right and left sided heart failure? | back 83 right sided is systemic, left sided is pulmonary |
front 84 How does a sustained increase in DBP affect the heart? | back 84 makes is harder for blood to leave the heart, myocardium must exert more force to open AV valves |
front 85 When does the fetal heart develop? When does it start beating? What is the average fetal heart rate? | back 85 during the first 3 weeks, 21 days, 140-160bpm |
front 86 What are the four chambers of a fetal heart? | back 86 sinus venosus, atrium, ventricle, bulbus cordis |
front 87 What are the differences in a developed fetal heart vs. adult heart? | back 87 foramen ovale becomes the fossa ovalis, ductus arteriosus becomes the ligamentum arteriosum |
front 88 What do the foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus do? | back 88 connect the 2 atria so the blood from the right side of the heart can bypass the pulmonary circuit |
front 89 What are the 3 types of blood vessels? | back 89 arteries, capillaries, veins |
front 90 What does the vascular system do? | back 90 exchanges gases and nutrients, removes waste |
front 91 What is an artery? What is a vein? | back 91 artery-efferent, carries O2 rich blood away from the heart, vein-afferent, carries O2 poor blood towards to heart |
front 92 What % of blood in the body do veins hold? | back 92 60% |
front 93 What are the 3 layers of a vessel? | back 93 tunica externa, made up of collagen, anchors vessel, tunica media, made up of smooth muscle and elastic fibers, controls blood flow in arteries, tunica intima, made up of endothelium, contains a layer of elastic lamina |
front 94 What are the 4 types of arteries? | back 94 elastic, muscular, arterioles, capillaries |
front 95 What are elastic arteries? | back 95 closest to the heart, able to expand and contract to keep blood moving forward |
front 96 What are muscular arteries? | back 96 help to distribute and redirect the blood, branch of the elastic arteries, contain a large tunica media |
front 97 What are arterioles? | back 97 mainly only tunica media and intima, leads to capillary beds |
front 98 What are capillaries? | back 98 the smallest artery, only 1 tunic thick, tunica intima, forms beds where exchanges takes place |
front 99 What are the 3 types of capillaries? | back 99 continuous-most common in skin and muscle, least permeable, form blood brain barrier, fenestrated-allows rapid filtration or absorption to take place, very porous, found in endocrine glands, small intestine, kidneys, sinusoidal-extremely porous, found in special organs liver, bone marrow, spleen, lymph |
front 100 How are nutrients and gases exchanged? | back 100 based on concentration gradients, simple diffusion, moves from a higher pressure/concentration to a lower pressure/concentration |
front 101 What is colloid osmotic pressure? | back 101 moves from lower concentration to higher concentration, pulls into the vessel, generated by concentrations of albumin and sodium |
front 102 What is capillary hydrostatic pressure? | back 102 moves from higher concentration to lower concentration, "push", related to BP, increase in BP=increase in hydrostatic pressure |
front 103 What is albumin? | back 103 produced by the liver, #1 plasma protein, maintains fluid balance, low albumin=edema |
front 104 How do you calculate the net filtration pressure? | back 104 NFP=net hydrostatic pressure - net osmotic pressure |
front 105 What are venuoles? | back 105 attach to capillaries and carry blood to the heart, very porous, allows fluid and WBC's to move in and out |
front 106 What purpose do the one-way valves serve in veins? | back 106 promotes venous return to the heart, failed valves=varicose veins |
front 107 What causes blood to flow? What influences it? | back 107 blood pressure, blood volume, resistance, cardiac output |
front 108 What is peripheral resistance? | back 108 the back pressure the heart has to overcome to maintain blood flow, affected by viscosity, vessel length, vessel diameter |
front 109 How does an increase in diameter affect peripheral resistance? | back 109 decreases peripheral resistance |
front 110 What is systolic pressure? Diastolic pressure? | back 110 systolic-pressure peak from ventricular contraction (120mmHg), diastolic-lowest aortic pressure (70-80mmHg) |
front 111 How do you calculate pulse pressure? | back 111 pulse pressure=systolic - diastolic |
front 112 What is a mean arterial pressure? How do you calculate it? | back 112 force moving blood forward in the arteries, MAP=DBP + pulse pressure/3, need to maintain MAP at 60 |
front 113 What is hyperemia? | back 113 increased blood flow in a local area |
front 114 What does epinephrine do? | back 114 increase heart rate, increase BP, increase contractility, vasoconstriction, blocked by beta blockers |
front 115 What does atrial natriuretic peptide do? | back 115 diuretic released by heart, decreases BP, vasodilation |
front 116 What does ADH do? | back 116 vasoconstriction, increase BP, increase blood volume |
front 117 What are 2 short term localized chemicals? | back 117 histamine and nitric oxide |
front 118 What is circulatory shock? What are the types? | back 118 widespread vasoconstriction to prevent drop in BP in vital organs, hypovolemic, cardiogenic, vascular |
front 119 What side of the heart pumps blood through the pulmonary circuit? | back 119 right |
front 120 What side of the heart pumps blood through the systemic circuit? | back 120 left |
front 121 Describe the blood flow through the heart. | back 121 SVC/IVC to right atrium through the tricuspid valve to right ventricle through the pulmonary SL valve to the pulmonary trunk to the lungs through the pulmonary capillaries to the heart via the pulmonary veins to left atrium through the mitral valve to the left ventricle through the aortic SL valve to the aorta through the body back to the heart |