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Microbiology Exam 2

front 1

Environmental factors with the greatest impact on microbes are

back 1

Nutrients, Temperatures, pH, Amount of water available, atmospheric gases, Light, pressures, and other organisms

front 2

+ Which elements are macronutrients?

back 2

C-Carbon
H-Hydrogen
O-Oxygen
P-Phosphorus
S-Sulfer
Nitrogen

front 3

+ Which are micronutrients?

back 3

Na-sodium
Cl-chlorine
K-potassium
Ca-calcium
Fe-iron
Mg-magnesium

front 4

What is a growth factor?

back 4

an organic nutrient(amino acid, nitrogenous base, or vitamin) that cannot be synthesized and must be provided as a nutrient

front 5

What are the two nutritional types?

back 5

Autotroph-chemoautotroph and photoautotroph
Heterotroph-saprobe (dead organisms) and parasite

front 6

+ What is the carbon source for autotrophs?

back 6

organisms that obtain inorganic source such as co2 as its carbon source and is not nutritionally dependent on other organisms for their survival

front 7

+ What is the carbon source for Heterotrophs?

back 7

nutritionally dependent on organic source from other organisms.

front 8

What is Microbial Cells?

back 8

Microbial cells must take in nutrients from their
surroundings by transporting them across the cell
membrane

front 9

+ What are examples of active transport?

back 9

molecules that are taken into the cell by a process that requires energy

( carrier mediated active transport, group, translocation, phagocytosis, pinocytosis )

front 10

+ What are passive transport?

back 10

involves the natural movement of substances down a concentration gradient and requires no additional energy

( simple or facilitated diffusion )

front 11

+ What happens to cells in hypertonic solutions?

back 11

cells shrink or crenate (distorted)

front 12

+ What happens to cells in hypotonic solutions?

back 12

cells swell and burst (lyse)

front 13

What happens to cells in isotonic solutions?

back 13

no net diffusion of water
rate of diffusion are equal

front 14

+ What is the name of a cell that requires a high salt environment?

back 14

Halophile

front 15

What is Obligate halophile?

back 15

organisms that have adapted to high salt concentrations (15-20% salt) that the require them for growth

front 16

What is Simple diffusion?

back 16

molecules readily pass through the cell membrane

front 17

What is Facilitated diffusion?

back 17

molecules pass through the cell membrane via a carrier protein

front 18

+ What is phagocytosis?

back 18

Phagocytosis is considered cell “eating” (brings in solid to the cell)

front 19

+ What is pinocytosis?

back 19

Pinocytosis is considered cell "drinking" (bring in liquid to the cell)

front 20

+ What is Mesophiles?

back 20

organisms that thrives between temperature of 10-50 degree Celsius.

front 21

+ What is Thermophiles?

back 21

organisms that thrives between temperature of 45-80 degree Celsius.

front 22

+ What is psychrophiles?

back 22

organisms that thrives between temperature of -20-15 degree Celsius.

front 23

+ What are Strict anaerobes?

back 23

Anaerobe that cannot grow in the presence of oxygen (O2)

front 24

+ What are Aerotolerant anaerobes?

back 24

anaerobe that cannot use oxygen (O2) but is not injured by it

front 25

+ What are Facultative anaerobes?

back 25

aerobe capable of living without oxygen (O2)

front 26

+ What are microaerophiles?

back 26

requires a small amount of O2 but does not grow under anaerobic conditions

front 27

+ What are acidophiles?

back 27

organism that thrives in pH below 7pH (acidic environment)

front 28

+ What are Alkalinophiles?

back 28

organism that thrives in pH above 7pH (alkaline environment)

front 29

+ What are Neutrophiles?

back 29

organism that thrives in 7pH (neutral environment)

front 30

What are barophiles?

back 30

organism that thrives in high barometric pressure

front 31

+ What are examples of symbiotic relationships?

back 31

organisms that live in close nutritional relationships; required by one or both members (Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism all dependent on one another for survival)

front 32

What is a mutualism relationship?

back 32

Obligatory dependent; both members benefit

front 33

What is a commensalism relationship?

back 33

The commensal (bacteria living in another bacteria) benefits; other members are not harmed.

front 34

What is a parasitism relationship?

back 34

Parasite is dependent and benefits; the host is harmed.

front 35

+ What are examples of nonsymbiotic relationships?

back 35

organisms that are free-living; relationships not required for survival (Synergism and Antagonism)

front 36

What is Synergism?

back 36

Members cooperate and share nutrients

front 37

What is Antagonism?

back 37

Some members are inhibited or destroyed by others.

front 38

What is Quorum sensing?

back 38

an interaction among members of abiofilm that results in a coordinated reaction such as secreting an enzyme

front 39

+ What is the name of the process that bacteria go through to reproduce?

back 39

binary fission

front 40

+ Be able to label the parts of a growth curve.

back 40

4 phases.
-Lag Phase-period of adaption (adjustment)
-Experimental Growth Phase-growth balances out
-Stationary Phase-population enters survival mode
-Death Phase-nutrients run out, and death occurs

front 41

What is metabolism?

back 41

the sum of all chemical and physical activities in a cell

is made possible by enzymes that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the energy of activation

front 42

+ What is catabolism?

back 42

Large molecules that are degraded back into a smaller molecule

front 43

+ What is anabolism?

back 43

reactions that convert smaller molecules into larger molecules

front 44

+ What is substrate specificity?

back 44

Enzymes that has a specific substrate and will only recognize its own type to bind with. (Lock and Key)

front 45

+ How are enzyme names similar?

back 45

They all end with “ase”

front 46

How do enzyme functions relate to their names?

back 46

Their name states what they do. i.e Oxidase-add electron to "Oxygen". Nitrate Reductase-reduce nitrate to nitrites.

front 47

What is Hydrolysis?

back 47

reactions that involves addition of water to break bonds

front 48

What is Condensation?

back 48

reactions that involve releasing water to form bonds

front 49

+ Be able to recognize when a molecule has been oxidized or reduced.

back 49

Oxidized=remove of hydrogen-loss of (H+)
Reduced= Adding of Hydrogen-Gain (H+)

front 50

What is denaturing?

back 50

the term for loss of three-dimensional structure of a protein

front 51

Enzymes are general targets for what physical and chemical agents?

back 51

– Heavy metals
– Alcohol

front 52

+ How does competitive inhibition work?

back 52

a substrate-like molecule binds the enzyme and blocks it from binding to its natural substrate

front 53

+ How does noncompetitive inhibition work?

back 53

the regulator molecule does not bind the same
site as the natural substrate

front 54

What is Endergonic reaction?

back 54

Endergonic reactions consume energy use(ATP)

front 55

What is Exergonic reaction?

back 55

Exergonic reactions release energy create(ATP)

front 56

+ What is the difference between endergonic and exergonic reactions?

back 56

Endergonic reactions consume energy use(ATP) and Exergonic reactions release energy create(ATP)

front 57

+ How many ATPs and NADHs does glycolysis yield per glucose?

back 57

2 ATP and 2 NAD's

front 58

+ During glycolysis, glucose is converted to how many pyruvates?

back 58

2 Pyruvates (each pyruvates goes through the steps and Crebs-cycle once)

front 59

+ The Krebs cycle yields how many ATPs and how many reduced electron carriers (per two pyruvate)?

back 59

2 ATP and 8 Electron

front 60

+ In which location of the cell does The Krebs cycle occur?

back 60

Mitochondria

front 61

+ In which location of the cell does glycolysis occur?

back 61

Cell Cytoplasm

front 62

+ What is the name of the enzyme that produces ATP in the electron transport chain?

back 62

ATP Synthase

front 63

+ What occurs during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

back 63

photons are absorbed by chlorophyll, water is split by photolysis, oxygen is released, and electrons released drive photophosphorylation
(H+ + ADP + ATP synthase -> ATP)

LIGHT IS NEEDED

front 64

+ What occurs during the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis?

back 64

(Calvin cycle) use ATP to fix CO2 to a carrier (RIBULOSE-1,5-BISHOPHATE) and convert it to glucose in a multi-step process.

LIGHT DOESNT MATTER

front 65

What does genes provide?

back 65

provide the information needed to construct proteins (enzymes)

front 66

What is DNA?

back 66

long molecule in the form of a double helix

front 67

What is Nucleotides?

back 67

the basic structural unit of DNA that are composed of
– Phosphate
– Deoxyribose (sugar)
– Nitrogen base(A,T,C,G)

front 68

Genetics is the study of heredity and can be studied at several levels. What are the layers?

back 68

- Organism
– Genome
– Chromosome
– Gene
– DNA

front 69

+ DNA replication is semiconservative because ?

back 69

Each daughter cell contains a parent strand and a
newly-synthesized complementary strand

front 70

What is RNA?

back 70

contains codons (groups of three consecutive
nucleotides)that pair with anticodons on the tRNA to specify which amino acid to assemble on the ribosome during translation

front 71

+ How is RNA different from DNA?

back 71

Single-stranded instead of double-stranded
Contains uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
Contains ribose instead of deoxyribose

front 72

+ What are the three types of RNA?

back 72

mRNA, tRNA, rRna

front 73

+ What are the functions of mRNA?

back 73

message based on the DNA sequence, contains codons

front 74

+ What are the functions of tRNA?

back 74

brings amino acids to the ribosome during
translation, contains anticodons

front 75

+ What are the functions of rRNA?

back 75

major part of the ribosome

front 76

What does RNA contain?

back 76

contains codons (groups of three consecutive nucleotides that pair with anticodons on the tRNA to specify which amino acid to assemble on the ribosome during translation

front 77

What is transcription?

back 77

the process by which DNA is used to produce RNA

occurs when RNA polymerase copies the template strand of DNA

front 78

What is translation?

back 78

(RNA->Protein) occurs when the RNA is used to direct the synthesis of proteins on the ribosome
– Begins at a “start” codon (AUG)
– Ends at a “stop” codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA)

front 79

+ What are the parts of an operon?

back 79

promoter, operator and terminator

front 80

+ How is transcription affected when a repressor is bound to an operator?

back 80

When the repressor is bound to the operator, transcription does not occur BUT When the repressor is not bound to the operator, transcription occurs.

front 81

In procaryotes, when does transcription and translation occur?

back 81

at the same time(both occur in the cytoplasm)

front 82

In eukaryotes, when does transcription and translation occur?

back 82

they occur separately and in different parts of the cell (transcription occurs in the nucleus and
translation occurs in the cytoplasm)

• In eukaryotes the mRNA must also be processed before translation can occur.
• Contains introns (intervening sequences) and exons (expressed sequences), where the introns must first be removed

front 83

What sequence contains the genes?

back 83

The sequence between the “operator” and “terminator” contains the genes

front 84

+ What are the parts of an Operon?

back 84

Promotor, Operator, Terminator, and Genes

front 85

+ What is terminator?

back 85

where transcription stops

front 86

+ What is promotor?

back 86

where RNA polymerase binds

front 87

+ What is operator?

back 87

where repressor molecules bind

front 88

What prevents the repressor from binding the operator?

back 88

An inducer molecule

front 89

+ Under what conditions is the Lac operon switched on?

back 89

In the absence of glucose,(even if lactose is present)lactose can be broken down and used for energy; certain enzymes are required for this process and are encoded by the Lac Operon

front 90

Some operons are repressible – NORMALLY ON but can be turned off. Describe one.

back 90

The Tryptophan Operon: Usually on and making tryptophan; when enough tryptophan is present the operon is turned off

front 91

Mutations are changes in the genetic code.
-Spontaneous
-Induced
How can we detect changes?

back 91

Mutations can be detected using selective
media and the replica plating technique.

front 92

+ What is a missense mutation?

back 92

change that leads to placement of a different amino acid by the ribosome (cause amino acid to change)

front 93

+ What is a Nonsense mutation?

back 93

changes a normal codon into a stop codon (premature stopping)

front 94

+ What is a silent mutation

back 94

alters a base but does not change the amino acid and thus has no effect

front 95

+ What is a back mutation

back 95

a gene that has undergone mutation reverses to the non-mutated state (mutated genes revert back to its original state)

front 96

Many mutations can be corrected using enzymes found in the cell, what is DNA photolyase?

back 96

fixes UV damage

front 97

Many mutations can be corrected using enzymes found in the cell, what is Excision repair enzymes?

back 97

fixes mismatched bases

front 98

+ Why are Ames tests used?

back 98

measures the mutagenicity of chemicals by their ability to induce mutations in bacteria

front 99

+ What is conjugation?

back 99

bacterial mating where DNA is transferred from one cell to another via the pilis

front 100

+ What is Transformation?

back 100

the transfer of naked DNA from the environment to the bacterial cell through special receptors on the cell surface

front 101

+ What is Transduction?

back 101

a process where viruses insert bacterial DNA into bacteria accidentally in nature

-We can also do this in the lab by placing DNA into a bacterial virus and then infecting bacterial cells

front 102

+ What are transposons?

back 102

Also called “jumping genes” are segments of DNA that regularly move to different places within the genome of a cell generating mutations and variations in chromosome structure

front 103

Know Genome viruses

back 103

viruses can be double-stranded or single-stranded, and can be RNA or DNA

front 104

Know DNA and RNA viruses

back 104

DNA viruses tend to replicate in the nucleus while
RNA viruses tend to replicate in the cytoplasm

front 105

What is decontaminant?

back 105

procedures involve the destruction or removal of contaminants

front 106

+ What is a contaminant?

back 106

defined as microbes present at a given place and time that are undesirable or unwanted

front 107

+ What is sterilization?

back 107

a process that destroys or removes all microbes, including viruses

front 108

What is Bactericidal?

back 108

chemicals that destroys bacteria

front 109

What is Bacteriostatic?

back 109

agents that temporarily prevent growth of microbes

front 110

What is Germicidal chemicals?

back 110

chemicals that will kill any pathogenic microorganism

front 111

+ What is the difference between microbicidal and microbistatic agents?

back 111

microbicidal destroys bacterias while microbistatic agent temporarily prevent growth of microbes.

I.E Microbistatic is similar to a fridge (coolness slow bacteria growth)

front 112

+ What are the cellular targets of antimicrobial agents?

back 112

They work by targeting either
- Cell wall synthesis and break the cell wall down
– Membrane permeability and lyses the lipids
– Protein and nucleic acid synthesis and function, it denature proteins

front 113

+ What is the temperature/pressure combination for an autoclave?

back 113

Temperature 120C @ 15psi, 20 minutes

front 114

+ What is the outcome of pasteurization?

back 114

subjects liquids to temperatures below 100C and is used to lower the microbial load in liquids

A widely used method is the flash method
• 71.6C for 15 seconds
Another method is the batch method
• 66C for 30 minutes

front 115

+ What is the outcome of boiling?

back 115

Boiling water at 100C for 30 minutes disinfects, but does not sterilize

front 116

+ What is the outcome of incineration?

back 116

Incineration can be carried out using a Bunsen
burner or incinerator
• Temperatures range between 800C to 6500C

front 117

+ What is the outcome of desiccating?

back 117

Drying and desiccation lead to (often temporary) metabolic inhibition by reducing water in the cell (drying not killing all bacterias)

front 118

+ What is the outcome of radiation?

back 118

Energy in the form of radiation can be used for
cold sterilization
– Works by killing microbes without heat

front 119

+ What is the outcome of filtration?

back 119

Filtration involves the physical removal of
microbes by passing a gas or liquid through a
fine filter
• Air and heat-sensitive liquids can be sterilized using this method

front 120

What is ionizing radiation?

back 120

causes breaks in DNA (xrays)

front 121

What is Nonionizing radiation?

back 121

Creates dimers in DNA stopping communication (UV-Light)

front 122

+ What are Antiseptics?

back 122

destruction of vegetative cells on animate (living object/surfaces) surfaces

front 123

+ What are Sanitizers?

back 123

clean inanimate (nonliving object/surfaces) objects using soap and degerming agents to achieve a “safe level” of microbes

(removes microorganisms to “safe levels or standards”)

front 124

+ What are Degermers?

back 124

physically remove surface oils, debris, and soil
from skin to reduce the microbial load

front 125

+ What are disinfectants?

back 125

destruction of vegetative cells on inanimate (nonliving object/surfaces)surfaces

(destroys vegetative pathogens but not bacterial endospores)

front 126

+ What components of the cell are affected by chlorine/iodine?

back 126

Chlorine disrupt disulfide bonds in PROTEINS and
can be sporicidal

– Iodine works similarly to chlorine

front 127

+ What components of the cell are affected by phenolics

back 127

Phenolics disrupt CELL MEMBRANES and precipitate PROTEINS

front 128

+ What is biphenols?

back 128

Bisphenols are mild forms for disinfection and
antisepsis (BPA)

front 129

+ What components of the cell are affected by chlorhexidine

back 129

surfactant and a protein denaturant (CELL MEMBRANE)

Solutions are found in skin degerming agents for preoperative scrubs, skin cleaning, and burns

front 130

+ What components of the cell are affected by alcohol?

back 130

Ethyl and isopropyl alcohol, in concentrations of 50-90% act as surfactants
– Dissolve membrane LIPIDS and denature proteins

front 131

+ What components of the cell are affected by hydrogen peroxides?

back 131

Hydrogen peroxide damages protein and DNA, while also decomposing to O2 gas which is toxic to anaerobes

front 132

What components of the cell are affected by Detergents?

back 132

Detergents, known as quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) act as surfactants that alter membrane permeability

front 133

+ What components of the cell are affected by soaps?

back 133

Soaps have little microbicidal activity but, rather, function by removing grease and soil
that contain microbes

front 134

+ What components of the cell are affected by heavy metals?

back 134

Heavy metals inactivate proteins