front 1 nucleotide components | back 1 phosphate group linked to 5-carbon sugar linked to nitrogenous base |
front 2 phosphodiester bonds | back 2 link sugars and phosphates in nucleotides |
front 3 purines | back 3 double ringed nitrogenous bases (adenine and guanine - as Pure as Gold) |
front 4 pyrimidines | back 4 single ringed nitrogenous bases (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) |
front 5 antiparallel | back 5 the DNA strands run in opposite directions, each with a 5' end (phosphate group carbon) and a 3' end (hydroxyl group carbon), 5' always opposite 3' of complementary strand |
front 6 plasmids | back 6 small, double-stranded, circular DNA molecules in prokaryotes and eukaryotes |
front 7 nucleosome | back 7 bunches of histones, package eukaryotic chromatin |
front 8 euchromatin | back 8 loose DNA in the nucleus, active for transcription |
front 9 heterochromatin | back 9 genetic material is fully condensed into coils, inactive |
front 10 helicase | back 10 unwinds the double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds in DNA replication |
front 11 replication fork | back 11 DNA strands exposed in y-shape from helicase, with each strand available to be a template for another strand (each has 1/2 original) |
front 12 origins of replication | back 12 where DNA replication begins |
front 13 DNA topoisomerases | back 13 cut and region the helix to prevent it from tangling, stop helix from twisting in DNA replication |
front 14 DNA polymerase | back 14 adds the nucleotides to the freshly built strand, only 5' 3 for new strand and 3' to 5' for old strand in DNA replication |
front 15 RNA primase | back 15 adds a short strand of RNA nucleotides (RNA primer) to start off replication, is degraded by enzymes and replaced with DNA later |
front 16 leading strand | back 16 one DNA strand is made continuously in DNA replication by DNA polymerase |
front 17 lagging strand | back 17 made discontinuously by DNA polymerase, opposite the way the helix is opening means need to be built in pieces until hits previously built stretch, build more once helix unwinds |
front 18 Okazaki fragments | back 18 the pieces of nucleotides that make up the lagging strand |
front 19 DNA ligase | back 19 links the Okazaki fragments to produce a continuous strand in DNA replication |
front 20 semiconservative | back 20 conserves half of the original molecule in each of the new ones, in DNA replication |
front 21 telomeres | back 21 the ends of the DNA molecule, contains unimportant DNA and gets shorter over time since chromosome loses base pairs at the end |
front 22 central dogma | back 22 DNA --> mRNA --> protein --> expression |
front 23 Where do transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes? | back 23 both in the cytoplasm at the same time |
front 24 messenger RNA (mRNA) | back 24 temporary RNA version of DNA, exits nucleus |
front 25 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) | back 25 makes up parts of the ribosomes, produced in nucleolus |
front 26 transfer RNA (tRNA) | back 26 shuttles amino acids to ribosomes, matches amino acids to anticodons to codons by reading mRNA |
front 27 What is the structure of tRNA? | back 27 anticodon on one side, amino acid on the other, usually uses normal base pairing rules but the third nucleotide in the pairing can vary (wobble pairing, not usual base match-ups) |
front 28 interfering RNAs (RNAi) | back 28 small snippets of RNA naturally made in the body, bind to specific RNA sequences to mark for destruction (e.g. siRNA and miRNA) |
front 29 polycistronic transcript | back 29 prokaryotes will transcribe a recipe used to make several proteins, unlike eukaryotes |
front 30 monocistronic | back 30 eukaryotes tend to have one gene that gets transcribed to one mRNA translated into one protein |
front 31 initiation | back 31 unwind and unzip DNA using helicase in transcription |
front 32 promoters | back 32 special sequences in the DNA strand where transcription begins (like docking sites at a runway) |
front 33 antisense strand / noncoding strand / minus-strand / template strand | back 33 the strand that serves as a template for RNA, only copy one of the 2 DNA strands |
front 34 sense strand / coding strand | back 34 dormant strand not copied in transcription |
front 35 elongation | back 35 RNA polymerase builds RNA, adding to 3' side of template strand (build new mRNA 5' to 3') in transcription |
front 36 promoter region | back 36 upstream of actual coding part of gene so polymerase can get set up before the bases it needs to transcribe, no need for a primer |
front 37 termination | back 37 RNA separates from the DNA template |
front 38 Do eukaryotes or prokaryotes need extra mRNA processing? | back 38 eukaryotes |
front 39 heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) | back 39 freshly transcribed RNA in eukaryotes |
front 40 exons | back 40 coding regions of hnRNA, are EXpressed and EXit the nucleus |
front 41 introns | back 41 non-coding regions of hnRNA, INtervening sequences and stay IN the nucleus |
front 42 splicing | back 42 when introns are removed from the mRNA in processing, can splice in different ways with different exons |
front 43 spliceosome | back 43 the RNA-protein complex that does the splicing of introns in mRNA processing |
front 44 poly (A) tail | back 44 a long string of adenine nucleotides at the 3' end of processed mRNA |
front 45 5' GTP cap | back 45 one guanine nucleotide at the 5' end of processed mRNA |
front 46 initiation in translation | back 46 ribosome attached to mRNA, shuttles from A to P to E binding sites, |
front 47 How is tRNA linked to amino acids? | back 47 charged tRNA and enzymes need ATP to link AA and tRNA |
front 48 start codon | back 48 AUG (methionine), first to go into ribosome in initiation |
front 49 elongation in translation | back 49 addition of amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain by tRNA reading mRNA |
front 50 pre-transcriptional regulation | back 50 largest point of gene expression regulation, occurs after transcription |
front 51 transcription factors | back 51 can encourage or inhibit the start of transcription by adjusting difficulty for RNA polymerase to get to start site, different genes being expressed causes different phenotypes (same transcription factors can influence different groups of genes) |
front 52 epigenetic changes | back 52 changes to the packaging of DNA that alter the ability of transcription machinery to access a gene, occurs through histone tightness modification |
front 53 operons | back 53 a cluster of genes used to control a single promoter in bacteria |
front 54 lac operon | back 54 controls expression of enzymes that break down lactose |
front 55 structural genes | back 55 code for enzymes needed in chemical reaction, usually transcribed at the same time to produce particular enzymes |
front 56 promoter gene | back 56 where RNA polymerase binds to begin transcription |
front 57 operator | back 57 region that controls where transcription will occur, where repressor binds |
front 58 regulatory genes | back 58 codes for specific regulatory protein called the repressor |
front 59 repressor | back 59 can attach to operator and block transcription, binds = transcription will not occur |
front 60 inducer | back 60 binds to the repressor and causes it to fall off, turns on transcription (by blocking repressor) |
front 61 post-transcriptional regulation | back 61 when the cell creates RNA, then decides it should not be translated into a protein, RNAi binds to RNA with BP = double stranded RNA which is destroyed |
front 62 post-translational regulation | back 62 cell has made a protein, but doesn't need it; mostly enzymes made ahead of time, turn off as needed |
front 63 morphogenesis | back 63 the succession of stages the cell changes in shape and organization throughout its development |
front 64 undifferentiated cells | back 64 can develop into any type of cell |
front 65 differentiated cells | back 65 once cells become specialized, their futures options are limited (no dedifferentiation; a future muscle cells can't turn into a bone cell) |
front 66 homeotic genes | back 66 the early genes that turn certain developing embryonic cells into future specialized cells, make sure the right gene is activated or part is modified at the right time |
front 67 Hox genes | back 67 a subset of homeotic genes |
front 68 apoptosis | back 68 programmed cell death, destroys scaffolding parts of developing embryo (toe webs) |
front 69 mutation | back 69 an error in the genetic code |
front 70 causes of mutation | back 70 chemicals, radiation, polymerase mistakes |
front 71 What has proofreading abilities? | back 71 DNA to prevent inheritance of them, RNA does not have |
front 72 base substitution (point) mutations | back 72 single nucleotide base is substituted for another |
front 73 nonsense mutation | back 73 point mutations that lead to a stop codon (terminate translation early) |
front 74 missense mutations | back 74 point mutations that lead to a different amino acid |
front 75 silent mutation | back 75 point mutations that code for the same amino acid with no change to the overall protein sequence |
front 76 insertions / deletions | back 76 gene rearrangement that results in gain / loss of a gene(s) and frameshift |
front 77 frameshift mutation | back 77 changes the sequence of codons (triplets) used by the ribosome to make proteins, everything after is affected |
front 78 duplications | back 78 gene rearrangements that result in an extra copy of genes from unequal crossing over or chromosome rearrangement, results in new traits |
front 79 inversion | back 79 changes in orientation of chromosomal regions |
front 80 translocation | back 80 two different chromosomes break and rejoin in a way that causes the DNA sequence or gene to be lost, repeated, or interrupted (can also be one chromosome breaking in 2 places) |
front 81 transposons | back 81 gene segments that can cut / paste themselves throughout the genome |
front 82 conjugation | back 82 swap DNA with other bacterial cells |
front 83 transformation | back 83 uptake of DNA for bacteria |
front 84 transposition | back 84 movement of DNA within and between DNA molecules for bacteria |
front 85 What increases the genetic variation of bacteria? | back 85 conjugation, transformation, transposition |
front 86 viruses | back 86 nonliving agents capable of infecting cells, use host cell machinery to replicate, made of protein shell (capsid) and genetic material |
front 87 viral genome | back 87 carries genes for building the capsid and anything else the virus needs that the host cannot provide |
front 88 How can viral genomes mix? | back 88 if two viruses infect the same cell |
front 89 lytic cycle | back 89 the virus immediately starts using the host cell's machinery to replicate the genetic material and create more capsid proteins, lyse to release viruses |
front 90 lysogenic cycle | back 90 virus incorporates itself into host genome and remains dormant until it is triggered, can remain dormant for a long time until triggered, means cell can divide with viral DNA |
front 91 prophage | back 91 host cell's genome before phage |
front 92 transduction | back 92 the transfer of DNA between bacterial cells using a lysogenic virus. host DNA is packaged into new viral particles so next infected cell has previous host DNA and viral genome |
front 93 enveloped viruses | back 93 viruses with a lipid envelope, no need to break out of cell but bud out of membrane instead |
front 94 retroviruses | back 94 use enzyme reverse transcriptase to convert their RNA genomes into DNA (e.g. HIV), high mutation rates and no proofreading = hard to treat |
front 95 recombinant DNA | back 95 generated by combining DNA from multiple sources to create a unique DNA molecule not found in nature |
front 96 genetic engineering | back 96 produces new organisms or products by transferring genes between cells |
front 97 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) | back 97 lab technique for making billions of identical gene copies in hours, DNA used for phylogenetic analyses |
front 98 amplification | back 98 the process of making many copies of genes |
front 99 thermocycler | back 99 the machine used that mimics the process of DNA replication |
front 100 transformation in lab | back 100 the process of giving bacteria foreign DNA (e.g. making insulin from bacteria or for gene expression studies) |
front 101 gel electrophoresis | back 101 separates DNA fragments by weight and charge |
front 102 restriction enzymes | back 102 create a molecular fingerprint by cutting in specific, personally unique patterns |
front 103 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) | back 103 the unique restriction fragments of individuals |
front 104 DNA fingerprinting | back 104 when RFLPs from DNA at the crime scene are compared to the suspects' RFLP |
front 105 DNA sequencing | back 105 used to determine the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecules |