Radiographic anatomy

Viewing the inside of the body without surgery

Cytology

The science concerned with the study of the individual cellular
structures (1 cell) using microscopes

Histology

The science concerned with the study of tissues (an aggregate of
similar cells) using microscopes

Pathology

A branch of biology that deals with anatomical and
histological changes due to disease

Embryology

A branch of biology that deals with the development
of an embryo from the fertilization of the ovum to
the fetus stage (conception to 8th week of gestation)

Physiology

A branch of biology that deals with the functions,
mechanisms, and activities of organisms at the cellular or
organ system level. Simply means how the body parts work

Osmosis

Movement of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable
membrane from a region of Higher water concentration (lower solute
concentration) to a region of lower water concentration (higher solute
concentration) to equalize the concentrations

Levels of organization

1 chemical level (atoms) 2 cellular level (molecule/DNA)

3 Tissue level 4 organ level 5 system level 6 organismal level

Metabolism

the chemical processes that occur in the body
- Anabolism (building up), catabolism (breaking down

Differentiation

Stem cells (precursor cells that can give rise to a different types of specialized cells)
-Red blood cells and white blood cells all arise from the same precursor cells in the
boon marrow

Homeostasis

Homeo = Like, similar or sameness
• Stasis = a condition of balance among various forces
• Homeostasis –the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms
to correct it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions
• Homeostasis: maintenance of a stable and constant condition of the
internal environment that is optimal for functioning

Anatomical Position

the
subject stands erect , the
eyes looking forward and
the arms at their sides,
palms forward.

serous membranes

The thoracic and abdominal body cavities are lined by thin, slippery,
double-layered membranes These
membranes adhere to the outer surface of the organs or “viscera”,
and then double-back on themselves to line the body cavity wal

Visceral layer

covers the organs within the cavities

Parietal layer

lines the cavity walls

right and left pleural membranes

are the serous membranes that
covers the lungs (visceral pleura) and the walls of the pleural cavity
(parietal pleura)

pericardial membrane

serous membrane that covers the
heart (visceral pericardium) and the pericardial cavity walls (parietal
pericardium)

peritoneal membrane

is the serous membrane that covers the
abdominal organs (visceral peritoneum) and the abdominal cavity
walls (parietal peritoneum).
Body Cavities

Inspection

Watch for anything looks abnormal

Palpation

Feel the body surfaces with hands to detect any abnormality e.g.
tender or enlarged organ or abnormal mass

Auscultation

Listen to body sounds to evaluate the functioning of certain
organs

Percussion

Means tapping on the body surface with the fingertips & listen to
the resulting echo
• When the lung is filled with fluid abnormally (as in pneumonia), it
will give a dull sounds with percussion instead of the normal
resonance at normal conditions (containing air)
• Using percussion you can specify which area of the lung is
diseased.

Medical Imaging

Techniques and procedures used to create images of the human body
• Allow visualization of structures inside the body
• Diagnosis of anatomical and physiological disorders
• Conventional radiography (X-rays) have been in use since the late 1940’s

Radiography

using X-rays to produce an image of interior structures.
They are inexpensive and quick
• Hollow structures appear black or gray
• Do not pass easily through dense structure (bone)

Chemistry

the science of the structure and
interaction of matter

Matter

anything that has mass and occupies
space

chemical
elements

compose all forms of matter

element

quantity of matter composed of
atoms of the same type

chemical elements are composed of

atoms

The most abundant elements of life

C “carbon”Organic molecules
– O “oxygen”Water
– H “hydrogen”water and acidity of body
– N “nitrogen” proteins and nucleic acid

2nd most abundant elements

Ca “calcium”Bone and teeth
– K “potassium”intracellular fluid and action
potential
– P “phosphate” Many proteins
– S “sulfur” Vitamins

Atoms contain

Nucleus [ Proton (+) & Neutron (0)]
– Electron Cloud  [ Electron (-) ] surround the
nucleus as a cloud

Protons

are large, positively-charged particles
• The number of protons in the nucleus (called the atomic
number

Neutrons

are the second large particle that make-up the
nucleus of atoms.
• Unlike protons, neutrons have no charge.
• They do add mass, however, and determine the variety, or
“isotope” of a certain element, i.e. carbon-12 vs. carbon-14,
which has 2 extra neutrons extra neutrons in nucleus

Electrons

are very small, light and negatively-charged
particles. They are often represented as a “planet” orbiting
the “sun” (atomic nucleus). In reality, they are found in a
“cloud”.

Atomic #

# of protons in an atom

Mass #

# of protons + neutrons
indicates how much the atoms “weighs”—this is always a
whole number.

Atomic mass (atomic weight)

the average mass of
all naturally occurring isotopes—since this is an
average, it is not exactly a whole number

Isotopes

atoms with the same atomic number (i.e.
the same # of protons) but different atomic weights
( i.e. different # of neutrons)
Structure of Atoms

Electrically Neutral Atoms

Number of Protons (+) = Number of Electrons (-)

Ions

atoms which have gained or lost electrons (-)
in their outer electron shell (also called the valence
shell)

atom turns into Positive when

When neutral atoms lose (e-), the total charge of the
atom turns into Positive because of the lost
electron’s charge was negative. (Cation)=+ ion

atom turns into Negative

When neutral atoms gain (e-), the total charge
of the atom turns into Negative because of
the gained electron’s charge was negative.
(Anion)= - ion

Stable Atoms

8 valence (e-)

Molecule

two or more atoms which share electrons

Catabolism -

energy releasing (exergonic) decomposition reactions that break covalent bonds, produce smaller molecules, releases useful energy

Anabolism

Energy storing (endergonic) synthesis reactions that require energy input, production of protein or fat, and are driven by energy that catabolism releases

Factors Influencing the Rate of Chemical
Reactions

Temperature
• Concentration of reactants and products
• Particle size
• Presence of CATALYSTS

Catalysts

Speed up chemical reactions
– Lowering the activation energy needed
– Never consumed nor produced
– Used over-and-over again

Acids = H+ donors

When dissolved in water, acids dissociate into H+ and an anion

Base =

H+ acceptor or OH- (hydroxyl ion) donor
– When dissolved in water, bases dissociate into OH- and a cation other than
H+

Salts =

ionic compounds
– containing cations other than H+ and anions other than OH-

pH

–log[H+] (concentration of H+ in moles/l)
• It is a scale that runs from 0 to 14
Acids and Bases

Buffering systems

Minimize the change in ph by either acting as the h+ donor or h+ accepter - they do this by hiding excess h + ions or excess OH- ions as other molecules like HCO3

Organic chemistry

Study of carbon based compounds - hydrogen - oxygen - nitrogen - carbon - phosphate

Categories of carbon compounds

carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleotides/nucleic acid

Hydrophilic vs hydrophobic compounds

philic = water soluble and polar covalent

phobic = water insoluble and nonpolar covalent

Carbohydrates

Sugars, starches, glycogen, cellulose are converted to other substances and used to build structures and to generate ATP.

Carb size groups

Monosaccharides =1 disaccharides = 2 and polysaccharides = many

Poly may contain hundreds of monos, is glycogen which is stored in the liver or skeletal muscles

Lipids

Contains C H and O - is hydrophobic - combines with lipids (lipoproteins) for transport in blood eg (triglycerides, phospholipids, steriods)

Triglycerides

Most abundant lipoproteins in the body - derived from glycerol and three fatty acids - found in your blood, too many raises risk of coronary heart disease especially in women

Phospholipids

Polar head and non-polar tail

Steroids

Lipid molecules that have four rings of carbon - Steroids are based on the lipid
cholesterol molecule.
–They include the molecules
used as sex hormones,
as well as other hormones
used in coping with
stress (cortisol).

Peptide Bond

Combinations of different amino acid connected together by a covalent bond Carry genetic information as deoxyribonucleicacid (DNA)
and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• Control protein synthesis
• Regulate most of the cell activities

Peptide bond pt 2

Function
–Structural Proteins e.g. Collagens and elastin provide support for connective tissues
such as tendons and ligaments
–Transport Proteins e.g. hemoglobin and cytochromes
–Antibodies defending the body from antigens
–Enzymes facilitate biochemical reactions
–Hormonal Proteins e.g. insulin, oxytocin, and TSH
They are involved in virtually all cell functions

Amino acids

made up of a carbon atom at their center, an amino group, a
hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, and an R side chain that differs with each amino
acid.

Nucleotides

Nitrogenous Base “Nitrogen containing ring structure”
•Attached to the 1' carbon atom of the pentose
•2 Rings - Purines “Adenine – A & Guanine – G”
•1 Ring – Pyrimidines “Cytosine – C, in DNA Thymine – T in RNA
Uracil – U
2.Pentose Sugar (5 carbons)
3.Phosphate Group

DNA structure

DNA is a Double -stranded
nucleic acid
• 2 sugar-phosphate strands of
DNA
• Joined in the middle by
hydrogen bonds
• Double stranded
Deoxyribose sugar

RNA

Single stranded
• Ribose replaces the sugar
deoxyribose
• Uracil is the nitrogenous base that
replaces thymine
• There are 3 types of RNA within the
cell,
each with a specific function:
–Messenger RNA (mRNA)
–Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
–Transfer RNA (tRNA)

ATP Adenosine Triphosphate

Energy-carrying molecule in the body
• used as a temporary storage of energy that is being transferred from exergonic
reactions to cellular activities.
• Function
 Muscle contraction
 Chemical transport
 Organelle movement
• Nitrogenous base “Adenine” + Sugar “Ribose” + 3 Phosphate groups

Energy is released when ATP is hydrolyzed

Plasma Membrane structure

The plasma membrane is the outer surface of Human cells.
• It is a fluid, two-layered structure that contains (phospholipids,
cholesterol, and proteins

Functions of the plasma membrane

Maintains structural integrity of the cell
-Regulates movement of substances into and out of the cell
-Provides recognition between cells (glycoproteins)
-Provides communication between cells (receptors)
-Sticks cells together to form tissues and organs (cell adhesion
molecules)

Movement Across the Plasma Membrane

Small particles:
-Passive transport
Movement across the membrane that doesn’t require energy
Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
-Active transport
Movement across the membrane that requires energy.
Large particles:
-Endocytosis
-Exocytosis

Hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic solutions

big bag, shriveled bag, normal bag inside these solutions

Exocytosis

Large molecules
are enclosed in
membrane-bound
vesicles that travel
to plasma
membranes where
they are released
to the outside
– Exo, exit: outside
– Endo: inside

Endocytosis

A region of the plasma
membrane engulfs the
substance to be ingested and
then pinches off from the
rest of the membrane,
enclosing the substances in a
vesicle which travels through
the cytoplasm
– Applies to large
molecules, single-celled
organisms, and droplets
of fluid containing
dissolved substances
• Two types:
– Phagocytosis (cell eating)
—large particles or
bacteria
– Pinocytosis (cell drinking)
—droplets of fluid

Nucleus

Surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which is a double membrane that allows communication through nuclear
pores
• Contains almost all of the genetic information of the cell
• Nucleoplasm
– Made of chromatin and the other contents of the nucleus
• Nucleolus
– A specialized region within the nucleus
– Involved in the production of ribosomal RNA

genetic information

The genetic information is organized into chromosomes
– Chromosomes are threadlike structures made of DNA and associated
proteins called histones
– Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) in the loose form (chromatin) or
condensed and are then visible in the light microscope during cell division

Chromosomes

Each cell in our body has a nucleus in which,
the DNA double helix is packaged by special proteins
(histones) to form a complex called chromatin. The
chromatin undergoes further condensation to form
the chromosome
Histones help with support and control of gene
activity
each chromosome consists of two identical sister
chromatids joined at centromere
chromatid is one-half of two identical copies of a
replicated chromosome.
Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus
when the cell is not dividing.
Chromosomes are only visible in cells during the cell
division
Gene: Specific segment of the DNA Directs synthesis
of a protein, which plays a structural or functional
role in the cell
each gene pair are located at the same position on
homologous chromosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum

An extensive network of channels connected to the plasma membrane, the nuclear envelope, and certain
organelles
• Two types of endoplasmic reticulum
– Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• Contains ribosomes that guide the production of cell products
– Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
• Lacks ribosomes
• Is involved in the production of phospholipids and detoxification

Golgi complex

A series of interconnected, flattened membranous sacs
• Cell products are packaged in vesicles and transferred to the
Golgi complex for processing and packaging

Lysosome

Lysosome Contains enzymes that break down macromolecules, old organelles, and
invaders

Mitochondria

Sites of cellular respiration, provide cell with energy through the breakdown of glucose
to produce ATP
– Double-membrane organelle
– Contains inner folding (cristae) that provide increased membrane surface for cellular respiration
– have a small amount of their own DNA( Mitochondrial DNA ;Mt DNA)

Cytoskeleton

Provides shape and support for the cell
• Is composed of microtubules (thickest),
intermediate filaments, and microfilaments
(thinnest)
– Centriole: a microtubule-organizing center located
near the nucleus
– Microtubules and microfilaments are seen to
disassemble and reassemble
– Intermediate filaments tend to be more
permanent

Centrioles

Organized in a pair of centrioles
• Each composed of nine sets of three microtubules arranged in a ring
• May function in cell division and in the formation of cilia and flagella.

Microtubules

Made of the protein tubulin
• Responsible for the structure and movement of cilia and flagella
– Cilia are numerous short extensions in a cell that move back and forth (on cells lining the respiratory
tract)

-Microfilaments

Made of the protein Actin
– Function in muscle contraction
– Form a band that pinches cell in two during cell
division

Intermediate filaments

Protein composition varies from one type of cell to
another
– Diverse group of ropelike fibers that maintain cell
shape and anchor organelles

Cell metabolism

Includes all of the chemical reactions that take place in a cell
– Organized into metabolic pathways
• Each contains a series of steps
• Specific enzymes speed up each step of the pathway

Four phases of cellular respiration

Glycolysis
– Transition reaction
– Citric acid cycle
– Electron transport chain
• Phases occur continuously in the cell

Glycolysis

Occurs in the
cytoplasm
– Splits glucose
into two
pyruvate
molecules
– Generates a
net gain of 2
ATP and 2
NADH
molecules
– Does not
require oxygen

Transition
reaction

Occurs within the
mitochondria
– CO2 is removed
from each pyruvate
Forms 2 acetyl CoA
molecules

Citric acid cycle
or Krebs cycle

Occurs within
the
mitochondria
– Acetyl CoA
enters the citric
acid cycle
– Releases 2 ATP,
2 FADH2, and 6
NADH
molecules
– Requires
oxygen

Electron transport
chain

Occurs within the
mitochondria
(inner membrane)
– Electrons of FADH2
and NADH are
transferred from
one protein to
another, until they
reach oxygen
– Releases energy
that results in 32
ATP
– Requires oxygen

Fermentation

Breakdown of glucose without oxygen
– Takes place entirely in the cytoplasm
– It is very inefficient (compared with cellular
respiration) resulting in only 2 ATP
– Lactic acid fermentation takes place in the human
body in muscles during strenuous exercise when the
oxygen supply in the muscle cells runs low
• The muscle pain is caused partly by the accumulation of the
waste product lactic acid
• The soreness disappears as lactic acid is converted back to
pyruvate in the liver