front 1 Atlantic System | back 1 A complex trans-Atlantic trade network that connected Western Europe, Africa, and the Americas, primarily exchanging manufactured goods, enslaved people (via the Middle Passage), and plantation cash crops. |
front 2 Plantation | back 2 A large-scale agricultural estate in a colony, particularly in the Americas, that specialized in the production of cash crops (like sugar, tobacco, and cotton) using enslaved or forced labor. |
front 3 Mestizos | back 3 A Spanish-American term for a person of mixed ancestry, specifically European (Spanish) and indigenous American heritage, who occupied a middling position in the colonial social hierarchy. |
front 4 Buccaneers | back 4 Pirates or privateers who operated in the Caribbean Sea during the 17th and 18th centuries, originally living off wild game on islands like Hispaniola, before turning to raiding Spanish treasure ships. |
front 5 Consumer Revolution | back 5 A period (roughly 1600–1750) marked by an increased demand for and consumption of new goods (e.g., ceramics, printed materials, tea, coffee) among all social classes in Western Europe. |
front 6 Agricultural Revolution | back 6 A series of innovations in farming techniques (e.g., crop rotation, new machinery, selective breeding) that occurred in Britain starting in the 18th century, leading to increased food production and a population boom. |
front 7 Rococo | back 7 A highly ornate and decorative style of art and architecture (mid-18th century) characterized by pastel colors, asymmetrical arrangements, curved forms, and themes of love and nature. |
front 8 Pietism | back 8 A Protestant movement that began in late 17th-century Germany, emphasizing individual piety, mystical devotion, emotional religious experience, and personal Bible study over rigid dogma. |
front 9 Robert Walpole | back 9 The first de facto Prime Minister of Great Britain (serving 1721–1742). His long tenure established the cabinet system and emphasized stability and peace over foreign wars. |
front 10 Peter the Great | back 10 The reforming Tsar of Russia (reigned 1682–1725) who embarked on massive state and military reforms, expanding Russian territory and founding the new capital of St. Petersburg. |
front 11 Westernization | back 11 The policy, notably implemented by Peter the Great, of adopting the political, military, economic, and cultural institutions of Western Europe in an effort to modernize and strengthen Russia. |
front 12 War of the Austrian Succession | back 12 A major European conflict (1740–1748) triggered when Frederick II of Prussia invaded Silesia, challenging the legitimacy of Maria Theresa's succession to the Habsburg throne. |
front 13 Enlightenment | back 13 An intellectual and cultural movement in 18th-century Europe that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism and challenged traditional religious and political authority. |
front 14 Voltaire | back 14 The pen name of François-Marie Arouet, a highly influential French Enlightenment writer and philosopher known for his sharp wit, defense of civil liberties, including freedom of religion, and advocacy of social reform. |