Constitutional Preamble

Contains ideals which the Constitution seeks to achieve.

Federalist #10

Multiple groups (factions) compete for power. It's natural for people to form groups, and in a large republic there will be so many groups that no single group will dominate policy making.

Brutus #1

Power should be held by the people, local governments are more democratic and allow citizens to more directly influence public policy.

Federalists

Supported the new Constitution, favored strong central government.

Anti-Federalists

Opposed constitution, favored states' rights; demanded a Bill of Rights.

Central government

The government that is a controlling power over a unitary state.

Republic

A representative form of government; people choose representatives to make public policy.

Shay's Rebellion

Uprising in western Massachusetts in opposition to high taxes and stringent economic conditions.

The Federalist Papers

A collection of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the collective pseudonym 'Publius' to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution.

Virginia Plan & New Jersey Plan

The Virginia plan (large states) was a proposal to the United States Constitutional Convention for the creation of a supreme national government with three branches and a bicameral legislature. The New Jersey plan (small states) proposed a unicameral (one-house) legislature with equal votes of states and an executive elected by a national legislature.

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

Created a bicameral legislature; House—population(favored large states), Senate—2 per state(favored small states); revenue bills would originate in House.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Slaves would count as 3/5 of a person for congressional representation purposes(southern states wanted slaves to count for this purpose, northern states didn't).

Slave Trade Compromise

A compromise was negotiated wherein the slave trade would not be banned for twenty years, but could be taxed.

Ex post facto law

A law that retroactively changes the legal consequences of actions that were committed, or relationships that existed, before the enactment of the law.

Bill of attainder

Legislation imposing the death penalty without a judicial trial.

Electoral College

Selects president; some wanted direct election by citizens, others wanted Congress to elect president.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Addresses the duties that states within the United States have to respect the 'public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

Prevents a state from treating citizens of other states in a discriminatory manner. Additionally, a right of interstate travel is associated with the clause.

Amendment process (Article V)

A proposed amendment must be introduced to both houses of congress and approved by ⅔ majority each. The amendment is then passed on to each of the 50 state legislatures. ¾ of the state legislatures must ratify the amendment for it to become part of the constitution.

Supremacy Clause

Establishes that the Constitution, federal laws made pursuant to it, and treaties made under its authority.

Ratification

To approve.

Checks and balances

A constitutional safeguard designed to prevent any one branch of government from becoming dominant. It requires the different branches of government to share power and cooperate with one another to accomplish anything of importance.

Separation of powers

Each branch is assigned specific powers, so each branch has limited power. (legislative branch- congress, executive branch- led by the president, and judicial branch- interprets the laws).

Federalist #51

James Madison argued that separation of powers and checks and balances would guarantee that no one faction would take total control of the national government.

Impeachment

The process by which a legislative body or other legally constituted tribunal initiates charges against a public official for misconduct.

Enumerated powers

Those that belong to the national government only (printing money, regulating interstate and international trade, making treaties and conducting foreign policy, and declaring war).

Implied powers

Not directly written; based on necessary and proper/elastic clauses; Congress can make legislation on economic, environmental, and social issues.

Inherent powers

Powers not explicitly specified in the Constitution that enable the government to take actions necessary to efficiently perform essential duties.

Concurrent powers

Powers which are shared by both the federal government and state governments.

Reserved powers

Powers that are not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution.

Devolution

Delegation of powers from the central government of a sovereign state to govern at a subnational level, such as a regional or local level.

Dual federalism

States and federals each supreme in their own sphere of power, no overlap.

Cooperative federalism

Federal and states share responsibilities, costs, and administration of policies; increased federal power.

Fiscal federalism

How federal, state, and local governments share funding and administrative responsibilities within our federal system.

Grants

One of the ways the government funds ideas and projects to provide public services and stimulate the economy.

Categorical grants

Aid with strict provisions from the federal government in how it may be spent.

Block grants

Permit the state to experiment and use the money as they see fit.

Revenue-sharing

Federal money to states with little or no strings attached (no longer exists).

Mandates

Rules that states must follow, whether the federal government provides money or not.

Americans with Disabilities Act

A civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability.

Tenth Amendment

All powers not delegated to the federal government or denied to the states are reserved to the states, or the people.

Commerce Clause

Expands congressional power. Modern broad interpretation of commerce clause: Only Congress can regulate anything affecting interstate commerce.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Allows congress to 'make all laws' that appear 'necessary and proper' to implement its delegate powers.

Bicameral

Having two branches or chambers.

Senatorial courtesy

Custom whereby presidential appointments are confirmed only if there is no objection to them by the senators from the appointee's state, especially from the senior senator of the president's party from that state.

Constituency/Constituents

Constituents are voting members of a community or organization and have the power to appoint or elect. A constituency is all of the constituents of a representative.

Congressional committees

A legislative sub-organization in the United States Congress that handles a specific duty.

Select committee

Temporary committees organized in each house for some special purpose. These committees usually carry out investigations for the purpose of writing special legislation.

Conference committee

Temporary and include members from the committees of the two houses who were responsible for writing a bill. These committees try to negotiate compromise bills, which are then submitted to the two houses for an up or down vote without amendments.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer in the House of Representatives, elected by a majority vote in the House.

President of the Senate

Also known as the vice president. The Senate's presiding officer, keeps order in the senate, but can't pass legislation in the senate.

President Pro Tempore

When the vice president is absent during senate sessions, the president pro tempore is the presiding officer.

Majority Leader

Keeps party members in line and helps determine party policy and the party's legislative agenda.

Minority Leader

Keeps the minority party members in line and helps determine the minority party's legislative agenda.

Majority Whip

Key member of the house majority party, acts as a communications link within the party, prepares summaries of bills, and takes nose counts on key votes.

Filibuster

A tactic used to delay a vote on a bill and tie up the work of the Senate, usually by a senator making a speech that continues for hours on the Senate floor.

Cloture

A way of ending a filibuster but requires the votes of 60 members, which is difficult to achieve.

Quorum

The minimum number of members of a deliberative assembly necessary to conduct the business of that group.

Rules Committee

Responsible for determining how long a bill will be debated and whether to allow an open or closed rule for amending the bill.

Discharge petition

The parliamentary mechanism to force a bill out of a committee for a floor vote.

Treaty ratification

The Constitution gives the President the power to commit the United States to treaties - but only with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the US Senate.

Discretionary spending

Must be approved annually as part of budget bills; defense is the largest area of discretionary spending.

Mandatory spending

Required by law, can only be changed by new legislation; includes entitlements and interest on the debt.

Entitlements

Spending on programs/benefits people are entitled to receive by law; includes Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program.

Social Security

A federal program in the U.S. that provides retirement benefits and disability income to qualified people, as well as their spouses, children, and survivors.

Medicare

A program added to the social security system in 1965 to cover health expenses for the elderly.

Medicaid

A federal and state assistance program that pays for healthcare for those who cannot afford it.

Budget deficit

Occurs when expenses exceed revenue, and it can indicate the financial health of a country.

Pork barrel legislation

"Pet project" riders designed to bring federal money to a home state.

Earmarks

Provisions within legislation that appropriate money to a specific project and appear in appropriation bills and authorization bills.

Omnibus bill

A single document that is accepted in a single vote by a legislature but packages together several measures into one or combines diverse subjects.

Logrolling

An agreement where two or more members of Congress agree in advance to support each other's bills.

Franking privilege

The ability to send mail by one's signature rather than by postage.

Incumbency advantage

Has a political advantage over challengers at elections.

Partisanship

A strong adherence, dedication, or loyalty to a political party—or to an ideology or agenda associated with a political party—usually accompanied by a negative view of an opposing party.

Reapportionment

The redistribution of seats in the U.S. House of Representatives based on changes in population.

Census

Is taken by the federal government to count the population to determine the number of each state's congressional districts.

Redistricting

Redrawing congressional districts. Done by each state legislature.

Gerrymandering

Drawing congressional districts in bizarre shapes usually to benefit a party.

Congressional oversight

Through its committees and subcommittees, Congress reviews the work of the federal agencies. This helps check the executive branch. It investigates charges of corruption and waste, and it holds hearings in which experts and citizens discuss the government's problems and suggest solutions.

Power of the Purse

Gives congress power to influence the president or bureaucrats by withholding or putting conditions on funding.

Formal Presidential Powers

Responsible for enforcing the laws, handling foreign policy, and serving as the ceremonial head of state.

Veto

A constitutional power of the president to reject a bill and send it back to congress to be revised or discarded. A two-thirds vote in each house can override it.

Pocket veto

A veto that happens when congress adjourns within ten days of submitting a bill to the president, who lets it die by not signing it or vetoing it.

Commander-in-Chief

The president serves as it. But the framers created a complex institutional situation regarding armed conflict. Can make war but not declare it.

Executive Order

Agreement with foreign heads of state, just like a treaty but don't require Senate confirmation.

The Cabinet

Each cabinet is not mentioned in the constitution but was created through custom and usage. Each cabinet department was instituted by an act of congress to help administrate the responsibilities of the executive branch.

"Advice and Consent" Power

Authority of the senate to ratify treaties, confirm cabinet, and judicial appointments. Restricts the president's power of appointment and treaty making.

Twentieth Amendment

Amendment that sets the inauguration date for new presidents and for new sessions of congress.

Twenty-Second Amendment

Sets a two term or ten year limit for presidents.

Twenty-Fifth Amendment

Amendment that states if the president resigns, dies, or is removed from office, the vice president then becomes president.

State of the Union Address

Annual speech given by the president to congress in the beginning of each calendar year.

Honeymoon Period

Period at the beginning of the new president's term during which the president enjoys generally positive relations with the press and Congress, usually lasting about six months.

Bully Pulpit

The ability of a president to communicate well with the American people. A very powerful tool for pursuing congress.

War Powers Act (1973)

An attempt to force the president to seek congressional approval before making war. Limits the president to 10,000 troops for 60 days, with 30 additional days to withdraw the troops, unless congress grants an extension or declares war.

Imperial Presidency

Term used to describe a president as an emperor who acts without consulting Congress or acts in secrecy to evade or deceive congress.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Responsible for preparing the budget of the United States and can be used to control and manage the executive agencies for the president.

White House Press Secretary

One of the president's top assistants who is in charge of media relations on a daily basis.

Federal Bureaucracy

The thousands of federal government agencies and institutions that implement and administer federal laws and programs.

Regulations

Signs treaties with foreign powers, nominates judges to the federal bench, including the Supreme Court, and nominates members of the Cabinet and for other federal offices.

Bureaucratic Discretion

The authority of a government agency to use their own judgment when determining the exact meaning of a law as they enforce it.

Iron Triangles

Informal alliances made up by three groups: a particular industry and its lobbyists, the congressional committee, the agency that actually is affected.

Patronage

(spoils system) granting favors, giving contracts, or making political appointments in exchange for political support.

Political Machine

An organization linked to a political party that often controlled local government.

Merit System

Bureaucrats earn jobs based on merit and/or civil service exams.

Spoils System

A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends.

Hatch Act (1939)

Permitted government employees to vote in government elections but forbade them from participating in partisan politics.

Red Tape

Complex bureaucratic rules and procedures that must be followed to get something done.

Department of State

Implements foreign policy, manages foreign aid, communicates with foreign governments, represents U.S. abroad & in international organizations.

Department of Homeland Security

Prevent/disrupt terrorist attacks, protect the American people & critical infrastructure & key resources, respond/recover from incidents that do occur, promote awareness for emergency prevention.

Department of Veterans Affairs

Implements foreign policy, manages foreign aid, communicates with foreign governments, represents U.S. abroad & in international organizations.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

An agency of the federal government created in 1970 and charged with administering all the government's environmental legislation.

Federal Elections Commission (FEC)

The independent regulatory agency charged with administering and enforcing the federal campaign finance law.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

Protects investors by regulating stock markets and policing corporations to prevent false and misleading claims of profits in an effort to increase stock prices.

NASA

An independent executive agency of the United States government responsible for aviation and spaceflight.

Judicial Review

Established in Marbury v. Madison by John Marshall that the constitution does not specifically grant the supreme court the right to judge to constitutionality of laws.

Precedent/Stare Decisis

Rule of law established for the first time by a court for a particular type of case and thereafter referred to in deciding similar cases.

Judicial Activism

Has no qualms about overturning legislative action.

Loose Constructionism

One favoring a liberal construction of the Constitution of the U.S. to give broader powers to the federal government.

Original Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to hear a case 'in the first instance.'

Appellate Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.

Writ of Certiorari

A legal document used to request the lower court transcripts of a case.

Bill of Rights

The first 10 amendments in the U.S. constitution.

Civil Liberties

The protections (enjoyed by all Americans) from the abuse of government power.

Civil Rights

Protections from discrimination based on race, gender, or minority status. Often used to refer specifically to the struggles of African Americans. (ex. Civil rights movement)

Selective Incorporation

The application of the Bill of Rights to state law on a case-by-case basis.

Establishment Clause

Prevents the government from establishing a state religion.

Free Exercise Clause

The right to practice the religion of your choice.

Freedom of Speech

Congress may not pass a law that prevents citizens from expressing their opinions, either in speech or in writing.

Freedom of Assembly & Petition

Protects the right of people to assemble peacefully.

Freedom of the Press

Criticisms of the government and its politics are protected.

Symbolic Speech

An act that conveys a political message.

Time-Place-Manner Regulations

Government regulations that place restrictions on free speech.

Libel and Slander

False defamatory speech. It is considered slander when it is spoken and it is considered libel when it is in a more permanent form, such as print.

Obscenity

Speech intended to incite violence.

Broadcast decency

To respond to personal attacks made on a radio or television broadcast.

Hate speech

Expression that is offensive or abusive, particularly in terms of race, gender, or sexual orientation.

Miranda rule

Suspects in custody must be informed of their 5th and 6th amendment rights.

Right to Counsel/Gideon v. Wainwright

Incorporated the right to an attorney (6th amendment through the 14th's due process clause).

Writ of Habeas Corpus

A court order to a person or agency holding someone in custody to deliver the imprisoned individual to the court issuing the order.

USA Freedom Act

A recently passed bill that stands for 'Uniting and Strengthening America by Fulfilling Rights and Ending Eavesdropping, Dragnet-collection and Online Monitoring Act'.

Exclusionary Rule/Mapp v. Ohio

Prevents the government from using most evidence gathered in violation of the United States Constitution.

Affirmative Action

Seek to create special employment opportunities for minorities, women, and other victims of discrimination.

Demographics

The study of population based on factors like age, race, and gender. Mainly used for learning about the population in order to develop policy and better economics.

Political culture

A set of attitudes, beliefs, and feelings which give meaning to the political process. Encompasses both political ideals and norms of the public.

Rule of law

No one is above the law.

Polling

A set of questions asked to gain information on current public opinion.

Exit polls

Polls that take place as voters leave selected polling places on election day. Ask who they voted for.

Push polls

An opinion poll that aims to sway voters by using loaded and manipulative questions.

Representative sample

A small quantity of the population that accurately reflects members of an entire population.

Margin of Error

A measure of the accuracy of a public opinion poll.

Straw Poll

Unscientific survey used to gauge public opinion on a variety of issues and policies.

Focus group

Small group of voters chosen by a political campaign for demographic similarities used to gauge how the group they represent feels about a certain candidate.

Sampling error

A polling error arising from using only a sample of a population; +/-3% is acceptable.

Political ideology

A set of beliefs about what the government should focus on.

Liberal ideology

Believe that government should be used in a limited way to remedy the social and economic injustices of the marketplace. They tend to support government regulation of the economy.

Affirmative Action

Programs that support government efforts to redress past social injustices.

Conservative Ideology

Belief that the government should be more local, have less federal regulation, tougher policy towards criminals, and uphold more traditional social beliefs.

Moderate

Individuals who do not constitute a coherent ideology and view themselves as pragmatists applying common sense to political problems.

Libertarian Ideology

Belief in little or no regulation beyond protection of property rights and minimal taxation.

Property Rights

The rights of an individual to own, use, rent, invest in, buy, and sell property.

Federal Reserve Board

An independent regulatory commission that is the nation's central banking authority in charge of monetary policy.

Monetary Policy

Conducted by the Federal Reserve; it involves controlling the money supply and interest rates to stabilize the economy, where money supply and interest rates are inversely related.

Third Parties

Any political party other than one of the two major parties.

Political Polarization

When a person's stance on a given issue, policy, or candidate is strictly defined by their political party or ideology.

Political Participation

The many different ways that people take part in politics and government.

Political Efficacy

Citizens' trust in their ability to change the government and belief that they can understand and influence political affairs.

Fifteenth Amendment

Prohibits the denial of suffrage based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Seventeenth Amendment

Establishes the direct election of senators.

Nineteenth Amendment

Grants women the right to vote (women's suffrage).

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

Bans poll tax.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment

Lowers the voting age to 18 years.

Retrospective Voting

Voting to decide whether the party or candidate in power should be re-elected based on the recent past.

Voter Turnout

The percentage of registered voters who participated in an election.

Grandfather Clause

An exemption that allows persons or entities to continue with activities that were approved before the implementation of new rules.

Literacy Test

A requirement that voters be able to read.

Poll Tax

A tax a person is required to pay before being allowed to vote.

Voter Identification Laws

Laws that require a form of identification to vote or receive a ballot, often controversial regarding their impact on minorities.

Voter Registration Laws/Motor Voter

Designed to reduce voter fraud by limiting voting to those who have established eligibility by submitting the proper documents.

General Election

Elections in which voters elect officeholders.

Midterm Elections

General elections that occur after the presidential election, where all seats of the House are up for election and 33 or 34 Senate seats.

Referendum

A state-level method of direct legislation that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed legislation or constitutional amendments.

Initiative

Procedure whereby a certain number of voters may propose a law or constitutional amendment and have it submitted to the voters.

Political Parties

Groups of individuals who organize to win elections, operate government, and influence public policy, with the U.S. having two major parties: Democrat and Republican.

Interest Groups

Organizations dedicated to a particular political goal or a set of unified goals, often sharing a common bond.

Iowa Caucus

The first state to vote in the primaries.

New Hampshire Primary

The first primary election, where candidates who do not win are unlikely to continue their campaign.

Swing States

States whose electoral college votes tend to fluctuate, where candidates typically spend more time and money campaigning.

Party Platform

A political party's goals and policies for the next four years. A statement of a party's beliefs.

Third-party candidate

A small political party that rises and falls with a charismatic candidate or, if composed of ideologies on the right or left, usually persists over time.

Independent candidate

A candidate that runs without party affiliation. It is very difficult to overcome the money and organization of the two major parties.

Faithless elector

An elector who does not vote for the candidates for the U.S. President and U.S. Vice President for whom the elector had pledged to vote, and instead votes for another person for one or both offices or abstains from voting.

Winner-take-all voting system

The winner of the presidential election in each state wins all of that state's electors.

Lobbying

An attempt to influence legislation via direct contact with members of the legislative or executive branch.

Grassroots Lobbying

A form of lobbying designed to persuade officials that a group's policy position has strong constituent support.

Incumbency Advantage

The electoral advantage a candidate gets because of their incumbency such as name recognition and government resources.

Open Primaries

Voters may vote in only one party's primary, but they may vote in whichever party primary they choose.

National Popular Vote

An agreement among a group of U.S. states and the District of Columbia to award all their electoral votes to whichever presidential candidate wins the overall popular vote in the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

Professional Campaign Consultants

The private-sector professionals and firms who sell to a candidate the technologies, services, and strategies required to get that candidate elected.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002

Prohibits any funds from parties and committees from being solicited, received, directed, transferred, or spent in the name of national political parties, Federal candidates or officials, or by joint fundraising activities by two or more party committees.

Dark Money

Political money where the donor of the money does not have to be disclosed.

Attack Ads

Ads that are direct and personal attacks meant to reduce the credibility of the opposing candidate; they create doubt, stir fear, exploit anxiety, or motivate ridicule.

Opposition Research

The practice of collecting information on a political opponent or other adversary that can be used to discredit or otherwise weaken them.

Citizens United v. FEC

Struck down soft money and ad timing bans in BCRA. Held that corporations are people, therefore corporations have free speech to engage in unlimited independent political expenditures, led to the creation of Super PACs.

Political Action Committees (PACs)

Raise money to support a candidate or cause. Most PAC $ goes to incumbents. PACs can raise and spend an unlimited amount of money, and can give $5,000 directly to a candidate. Corporations and unions can not contribute to a PAC.

SuperPACs

Real name: Independent-expenditure-only Committee. Corporations and unions can raise and spend unlimited amounts independent of the candidate, and cannot contribute directly to candidates.

Leadership PACs

A political committee that is established, financed, maintained and/or controlled by a candidate or individual holding a position in federal office.

Horserace Journalism

Report on popularity and polling rather than qualifications and platforms of candidates.

Media Bias

The bias or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of events and stories that are reported and how they are covered.

Ideologically Oriented Programming

TV and radio news programs that cater to audiences with a particular ideological perspective.

News Source and Information Credibility

More news sources than ever, but we're not necessarily better informed. Uncertainty of credibility of news sources.

Sound Bite

A brief, memorable comment that can easily be fit into news broadcasts.

Adversarial Press

The tendency of the national media to be suspicious of officials and eager to reveal unflattering stories about them.