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mastering A&P chapter 26 urinary system

front 1

what are the three funcitons of the urinary system?

back 1

excretion elimination and homeostatic regulation

front 2

how does the urinary system help regulate blood volume and blood pressure?

back 2

by adjusting the volume of water lost in the urine and releasing erythropoietin and renin

front 3

how does the urinary system help regulate plasma ion concentration?

back 3

by controlling quantities of sodium potassium and chloride ions lost in urine and by controlling calcium levels through syntesis of calcitriol

front 4

how does the urinary system help stabilize blood pH?

back 4

by controlling loss of hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions in urine

front 5

how does the urinary system conserve valuable nutrients?

back 5

by preventing excretion while excreting organic waste products

front 6

what does the urinary system assist the liver with?

back 6

detoxifying poisons

front 7

what is the renal cortex? what color and texture is it?

back 7

the superficial portion of kidneys in contact with renal capsule; reddish brown and granular

front 8

what are renal pyramids?

back 8

6 to 8 distinct conical or triangular structures in renal medulla

front 9

where are the base and tip found

back 9

base is abuts the cortex and the tip (renal papilla) project into renal sinus.

front 10

how much of the total cardiac output does the kidneys recieve?

back 10

20%-25%

front 11

what are the two types of nephrons?

back 11

cortical and juxtamedullary

front 12

which type of nephron make up 85% of all nephrons?

back 12

cortical

front 13

where are the cortical nephrons located?

back 13

within the superficial cortex of kidneys

front 14

compare the nephron loop (loop of henle) of the cortical to the one of the juxtamedullary

back 14

the cortical nephron is relatively short while the one of the juxtamedullary extends deep into the medulla

front 15

what does the efferent arteriole of the cortical nephron do?

back 15

delivers blood to a short network of peritubular capillaries

front 16

what do the peritubular capillaries of the juxtamedullary nephron do?

back 16

connect to vasa recta

front 17

what does a large loop mean?

back 17

more concentrated urine

front 18

what are the two segments of the renal tubule and where are they located?

back 18

proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule; cortex

front 19

what are the segments of the renal tubule seperated by?

back 19

nephron loop

front 20

what is the nephron loop?

back 20

a u-shaped tube that extends partially into the medulla

front 21

is filtration at the renal corpuscle active or passive?

back 21

passive; no atp is necessary

front 22

what kind of solutes enter capsular space during filtration?

back 22

metabolic waste and excess ions like glucose, free fatty acids, amino acids, and vitamins

front 23

what is reabsorption and where does it occur

back 23

when useful materials that are recaptured before filtrate leaves kidneys and it occurs in proximal convoluted tubule

front 24

what is the first segment of the renal tubule and where is the entrance to this segment?

back 24

proximal convoluted tubule; opposite to the point of connection of afferent and efferent arterioles with glumerulus

front 25

describe the epithelial lining of PCT. what does it do?

back 25

simple cuboidal with microvilli on apical surfaces. the fuunction is reabsorption and it secretes substances into lumen

front 26

what is the nephron loop

back 26

renal tubule that turns toward renal medulla

front 27

what are the two limbs of the nephron loop? what does each contain?

back 27

descending and ascending; thick and thin segement

front 28

what does the thick descending limb do? what is its function similar to?

back 28

pump sodium and chloride ions out of tubular fluid; PCT

front 29

where is the ascending limb? what does it do?

back 29

juxtamedullary nephron in the medulla; it creates high solute concentrations in peritubular fluid

front 30

what are the thin segments permeable to? what dos the movement of this help?

back 30

water only,not solute; helps concentrate tubular fluid

front 31

where does the thick ascending limb end?

back 31

at a sharp angle near the renal corpuscle where DCT begins

front 32

what arethe three organic waste produces?

back 32

urea, creatine and uric acid

front 33

where are organic waste dissolved, when are they eliminated, and what does their removal include?

back 33

dissolved in bloodstream, eliminated only while dissolved in urine and removal is accompanied by water loss

front 34

what are the three components of the membrane involved in glomerular filtration

back 34

capillary endothelium, dense layer, and filtration silts

front 35

what type of capillary are glomerular capillaries? what do their pores do?

back 35

fenstrated; prevent passage of blood cells and allow diffusion of solutes including plasma protiens

front 36

what is glomerular filtration governed by?

back 36

the balance between hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure on either side of capillary walls

front 37

what is glomerular hydrostatic pressure? what does it tend to do?

back 37

blood pressure in glomerular capillaries; push water and solute molecules out of plasma into filtrate

front 38

why is the hydrostatic pressure significantly higher than capillary pressure in systemic circuit.

back 38

arrangement of vessels at gloerulus

front 39

where does blood leaving glomerular capillaries do? how does the diameter of this arteriole compare to the other

back 39

flow into an efferent arteriole with a diameter smaller than afferent arteriole

front 40

what does the efferent arteriole produce? what does this require?

back 40

resistance; relatively high pressure to force blood into it

front 41

what is capsular hydrostatic pressure? what does it do? what does it result from?

back 41

capsular hydrostatic pressure that opposes glomerular hydrostatic pressure; pushes water and solutes out of filtrate into plasma; resistance to flow along nephron and conducting system (avg is 15 mm Hg)

front 42

what is the net hydrostatic pressure?

back 42

difference between glomerular hydrostatic pressure and capsular hydrostatic pressure

front 43

what is colloid osmotic pressure?

back 43

osmotic pressure resulting from the presence and capsular hydrostatic pressure

front 44

what does blood colloid osmotic pressure tend to do?

back 44

draw water out of filtrate into plasma. opposes filtration (avg is 25 mm Hg)

front 45

what is net filtration pressure?

back 45

average pressure forcing water and dissolved materials out of glomerular capillaries into capsular spaces

front 46

what is there a difference between at the glomerulus?

back 46

hydrostatic pressure and BCOP accross glomerular capillaries

front 47

what is the creatinine clearance test used for?

back 47

to estimate GFR

front 48

how much flitrate is generated in glomeruli each day? where is 99% of it reabsorbed?

back 48

180 liters; renal tubules

front 49

wht three interacting levels control the GFR

back 49

autoregulation, hormonal regulation, and autonomic regulation

front 50

what are the hormonal regulations of the GFR?

back 50

renin-angiotensin system and natiutic peptides (ANP and BNP)

front 51

what three stimuli causes the juxtagloumerular complex to relesase renin?

back 51

1. decline in blood pressure at glomerulus due to decrease in blood volume fall in systemic pressures, or blockage in renal artery or tributaries
2. stimulation of juxtaglomerular cells by sympathetic innervation
3. decline in osmotic concentration of tubular fluid at macula densa

front 52

what does angiotensin II activation do?

back 52

constricts efferent arterioles of nephron elevating glomerular pressure, stimulates reabsorption of sodium ions and water at PCT, stimulates secretion of aldosterone by adrenal cortex, stimulates thirst, and triggers release of ADH which stimulates reabsorption of water in distal portion of DCT and collecting system

front 53

what does angiotension II do?

back 53

increases sympathetic motor tone, causes a brief powerful vasconstriction, and elevates arterial pressures throughout the body

front 54

was do the increase of sympathetic motor tone by angiotensin II cause to happen?

back 54

mobilizes the venous reserve, increases cardiac output and stimulates peripheral vasoconstriction

front 55

what does aldosterone do?

back 55

accelerates sodium reabsortion in DCT and cortical portion of collecting system

front 56

what are natriuretic peptides? what do they do?

back 56

hormones that regulate GFR; trigger dilation of afferent arterioles and constriction of efferent arterioles and elevate glomerular pressure and increase GFR

front 57

where are natriuretic peptides released and when?

back 57

by the heart in response to stretching walls due to increased blood volume or pressure

front 58

what are the two types of natriuretic hormones and where are they released?

back 58

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) released by the atria and Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) released by ventricles

front 59

what does reabsorption do?

back 59

recover useful materials from filtrate

front 60

what does secretion do?

back 60

ejects waste products, toxins, and other undesirable solutes

front 61

where does reabsorption and secretion occur? what changes from segment to segment with these two things?

back 61

in every segment of nephron except renal corpuscle; relative importance

front 62

how much of the filtrate produced in the renl corpuscle does the PCT cells usually reabsorb? where does this reabsorbed material go?

back 62

60-70%; it enters the peritubular fluid and diffuse into peritubular capillaries

front 63

what are the five functions of the PCT?

back 63

reabsorption of organic nutrients, active reabsorption of ions, reabsorption of water, passive reabsorption of ions, secretion

front 64

what is important in every pct process?

back 64

sodium ion reabsorption

front 65

how do sodium ions enter tubular cells?

back 65

diffusion through leak channels; sodium lined cotransport organic solutes, and countertransport for hydrogen ions

front 66

how does the nephron loop reabsorb around half the water and 2/3 of the sodium an chloride ions remaining in tubular fluid

back 66

by the process of countercurrent exchange

front 67

what is countercurrent multiplication?

back 67

the exchange that occurs between the two parallel segments of loop of henle- the thin descending limb and the thick ascending limb

front 68

what does countercurrent refer to?

back 68

the exchange between tubular fluids moing in opposite directions ( fluid n descending limb flows toward renal pelvis and fluid in ascending limb flows toward cortex)

front 69

what does multiplication refer to?

back 69

the effect of exchange hat increases as movement of fluid continues

front 70

what are the parallel segments of the nephron loop separated by? how do their characteristics compare?

back 70

peritubular fluid; they are very different

front 71

describe the permeability to the thin descending limb

back 71

permeable to water and relatively impermeable to solutes

front 72

describe the permeability of the thick ascending limb. what does it contain?

back 72

relatively impermeable to water and solutes. it contains an active transpor mechanism that pumps Na+ and Cl- from tubular fluid into peritubular fluid of medulla

front 73

what do sodium and chloride pumps do?

back 73

elevate osmotic concentration in peritubular fluid around thin descending limb and causes osmotic flow of water out of thin descending limb and into peritubular fluid which increases solute concentration in thin descending limb

front 74

where does the concentrated solution arrive and what does it cause?

back 74

thick ascending limb and accelerates Na+ and Cl- transport into peritubular fluid of medulla

front 75

what does solute pumping at ascending limb cause?

back 75

and increase solute concentration in descending limb which accelerates solute pumping in ascending limb

front 76

where does contercurrent multiplication occur? what does it move and where does it move it?

back 76

apical surface; Na+, K+, and Cl- out of tubular fluid

front 77

what is the carrier protein used in contercurrent multiplication

back 77

Na+-K+/2Cl-

front 78

describe the route for potassium ions.

back 78

pumped into peritubular fluid by cotransport carriers, removed from peritubular fluid by sodium- potassium exchange pump,and diffuse back into lumen of tubule through potassium leak channels

front 79

describe the route for sodium and chloride ions.

back 79

removed from tubular fluid in ascending limb which elevates osmotic concentration of peritubular fluid around thin descending limb

front 80

what happens as tubular fluid flows along thin descending limb?

back 80

osmosis moves water into peritubular fluid, leaving solutes behind. osmotic concentration of tubular fluid increases

front 81

where are 2/3 of Na+ and Cl- in tubular fluid pumped out before reaching DCT causing the solute concentration to decline and why?

back 81

thick ascending limb because of the highly effectie pumping mechanism

front 82

what is the osmotic concentration of tubular fluid at the DCT?

back 82

100 mOsm/L

front 83

what is the rate of ion transport across thick ascending limb proportional to?

back 83

ion's concentration in tubular fluid

front 84

where are more Na+ and Cl- pumped into medulla?

back 84

at the start of thick ascending limb near cortex

front 85

what does the regional difference in the ion transport rate cause?

back 85

concentration gradient within medulla

front 86

what is the maximum solute concentration of peritubular fluid near the turn of the nephron loop? how much of this is from Na+ and Cl- pumped out of ascending limb? what is the remainder?

back 86

1200 mOsm/L; 2/3; from urea

front 87

what locations are impermeable to urea?

back 87

thic ascending limb, DCT, and collecting ducts

front 88

what happens to the concentration of urea as water is reabsorbed?

back 88

the concentration rises

front 89

how many mOsm/L of urea are found in tubular fluid reaching papillary ducts?

back 89

450

front 90

what is permeable to urea?

back 90

papillary ducts

front 91

what are two benefits of contercurrent multiplication?

back 91

efficiently reabsorbs solutes and water before tubular fluid reaches DCT and collecting system and it establishes a concentration gradient that premits passive reabsorption of water form tubular fluid in collecting system.

front 92

what is aldosterone and what all does it do?

back 92

a hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that controls ion pump and channels, stimulates synthesis and incorporation of Na+ pumps and channels in plasma membranes along DCT and collecting ducts and reduces Na+ lost in urine

front 93

what is produced by prolonged aldosterone stimulation and dangerously reduces plasma concentration?

back 93

hypokalemia

front 94

what opposes secretion of aldosterone and its actions on DCT and collecting system?

back 94

natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP)

front 95

what regulates calcium ion reabsorption at he DCT?

back 95

parathyroid hormone and calcitriol

front 96

what is contained in blood entering peritubular capillaries?

back 96

undesirable substances that did not cross filtration membrane at glomerulus

front 97

what causes the rate of K+ and H+ secretions to rise or fall and how?

back 97

the concentrations in peritubular fluid. higher concentration and higher rate of secretion

front 98

how do potassium ions diffuse into lumen?

back 98

through potassium leak channels

front 99

what do tubular cells exchange?

back 99

Na+ in tubular fluid for excess K+ in body fluids

front 100

what generates hydrogen ion secretions?

back 100

dissociation of carbonic acid by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase

front 101

what does hydrogen ion secretion do? what causes it to accelerate?

back 101

acidifies tubular fluid,elevates blood pH, and accelerates when blood pH falls

front 102

what is acidosis and when does it develop?

back 102

lactic acidosis and develops after exhaustive muscle activity

front 103

what causes ketoacidosis to develop?

back 103

starvation or diabetes mellitus

front 104

what controls blood pH? what are these important to?

back 104

H+ removal and bicarbonate production at kidneys; homeostasis

front 105

what is alkalosis? what can cause it?

back 105

abnormally high blood pH; prolonged aldosterone stimulation which stimulates secretion

front 106

what are the responses to acidosis?

back 106

PCT and DCT deaminate amino acids, ammonium ions are pumped into tubular fluid and bicarbonate ions enter bloodstream through peritubular fluid

front 107

what do PCT and DCT deaminate amino acids do?

back 107

ties up H+ and yields ammonuium ions (NH4+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)

front 108

what are some benefits of tubular deamination?

back 108

provides carbon chains for catabolism and generates bicarbonate ions to buffer plasma

front 109

describe reabsorption and secretion at collecting ducts?

back 109

receives tubular fluid from nephron and carries it toward renal sinus

front 110

how is water and solute loss regulated in the collecting system?

back 110

by aldosterone and ADH

front 111

what does aldosterone control? what is it opposed by?

back 111

sodium ion pumps and actions are opposed by natiuretic peptides

front 112

what does ADH control and what is it suppressed by?

back 112

permeability to water; natriuretic peptides

front 113

what is reabsorbed in the collecting system?

back 113

sodium ions, bicarbonate, and urea

front 114

what is secreted in the collecting system and why?

back 114

hydrogen or bicarbonate ions. it controls body fluid pH

front 115

what happens when there is a low pH in peritubular fluid.

back 115

carrier protiens pump H+ into tubular fluid and reabsorbs bicarbonate ions

front 116

what happens when there is a high pH in peritubular fluid.

back 116

collecting system secretes bicarbonate ions and pumps H+ into peritubular fluid

front 117

how is urine volume and osmotic concentration controlled?

back 117

through control of water reabsorption

front 118

how is water reabsorbed?

back 118

through osmosis in proximal convoluted tubule and descending limb of nephron loop

front 119

what does ADH cause to appear in apical cell membranes and why?

back 119

water channels (aquaporins) to increase the rate of osmotic water movement

front 120

what does higher levels of ADH increase?

back 120

number of water channels and water permeability of DCT and collecting ststem

front 121

what happens if there is no ADH?

back 121

water is not reabsorbed and all fluid reaching DCT is lost in urine producing large amounts of dilute urine

front 122

what causes DCT and collecting systems to always be permeable to water?

back 122

the hypothalamus is continuously secreting ADH

front 123

how much urine does a healthy aduly produce per day?

back 123

1200 mL with osmotic concentration o 800-1000 mOsm/L

front 124

what is diuresis? what does it typically indicate?

back 124

the elimination of urine typically indicating production of large volumes of urine

front 125

what is diuretics?

back 125

drugs that promote water loss in urine

front 126

what does diuretic therapy reduce?

back 126

blood volume, blood pressure and extracellular fluid volume

front 127

what is the function of the vasa recta?

back 127

to return solutes and water reabsorbed in medulla to general circulation without disrupting the concentration gradient

front 128

what is the osmotic concentration of blood entering the vasa recta?

back 128

300 mOsm/L

front 129

when does the osmotic concentration of blood to increase? what does it involve?

back 129

as the blood descends into the medulla. it involves solute absorption and water loss

front 130

what does blood flowing toward the cortex do? what does it involve?

back 130

gradually decreases with solute concentration of peritubular fluid. it involves solute diffusion and osmosis

front 131

what does the vasa recta carry out of the medulla and why?

back 131

water and solute; balances solute reabsorption and osmosis in medulla

front 132

what are the seven steps of renal function

back 132

1. glomerulus
2. proximal convoluted tubule
3. PCT and descending limb
4. thick ascending limb
5. DCT and collecting ducts
6. DCT and collecting ducts
7. vasa recta

front 133

what has the same composition as blood plasma?

back 133

filtrate produced at renal corpuscle

front 134

what happens during step two of renal function?

back 134

active removal of ions and organic substrates (produces osmotic water flow out of tubular fluid that reduces volume of filtrate and keeps solutions inside and outside tubule isotonic

front 135

what happens during step three of renal function?what is there a reduction in and why?

back 135

water moves into peritubular fluids, leaving highly concentrated tubular fluid. a reduction in volume occurs by obligatory water reabsorption

front 136

what happens during step four of renal function? what accounts for a higher proportion of total osmotic concentration?

back 136

tubular cells actively transport sodium and chloride out of tubule. urea account for higher proportion of total osmotic concentration.

front 137

what happens during step five of renal function? what is adjusted and how?

back 137

final adjustments in composition of tubular fluid; osmotic concentration through active transport

front 138

what happens during step six of renal function? what is exposed here and what does it determine?

back 138

final adjustments in volume and osmotic concentration of tubular fluid; ADH, final urine concentration

front 139

what happens during step seven of renal function? what does it maintain?

back 139

absorbed solutes and water reabsorbed by nephron loop and the ducts; concentration gradient of medulla