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A&P2: Exam 1- Endocrine and Blood

front 1

Exocrine Glands

back 1

produce non-hormonal substances, such as sweat and saliva and have ducts that carry these substances to a membrane surface

front 2

Endocrine Glands

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DUCTLESS glands: they produce hormones and lack ducts. secretes hormones into blood via extracellular fluid

front 3

What are the 2 types of hormones?

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Amino Acid Based

Steroid

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What are amino acid based hormones?

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these are the MAJORITY: water soluble peptide (hydrophilic polar)

front 5

what are steroid hormones?

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made from cholesterol; lipid soluble (hydrophobic, non polar)

front 6

What are the 3 types of stimuli that cause hormone release?

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Humoral Stimuli

Neural Stimuli

Hormonal Stimuli

front 7

What are humoral stimuli?

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Secrete their hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of certain critical ions and nutrients

front 8

What are neutral stimuli?

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Nerve fibers stimulate glands

front 9

What are Hormonal stimuli?

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release their hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine glands

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What are the 2 parts of the pituitary gland?

back 10

Anterior and Posterior

front 11

Anterior Pitituary

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directly connected to hypothalamus by infundibulum hypophyseal protein veins

front 12

What are the hormones involved with the anterior pituitary?

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Growth Hormone (GH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH), Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Prolactin Hormone (PRL)

front 13

Growth Hormone (GH)

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Stimulates bone and muscle growth; stimulated by GHRH

front 14

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

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Stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) (T4 is more common)

Iodine is needed for this

front 15

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

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Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and androgens

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Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

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Stimulates ovarian follicles and sperm production

front 17

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

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Stimulates release of estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

front 18

Prolactin (PRL)

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stimulates lactation

front 19

Posterior Pituitary

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Hormones produced by hypothalamus are transferred to posterior pituitary by hypophyseal tract

front 20

What are the posterior pituitary hormones?

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Oxytocin and Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

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Oxytocin

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stimulates uterine contractions; initiates labor

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

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stimulates kidney tubule cells to reabsorb water (causes decreased uterine output)

vasopressin

front 23

Gonadotropins

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FSH and LH; they regulate the function of gonads

front 24

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

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produced by the hypothalamus prompts gonadotropin release

front 25

Thyroid Hormones

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location: on the trachea

the body's major metabolic hormone

T3 and T4 regulate iodine production

front 26

Parathyroid Glands

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produce parathyroid hormone

primary regulators of blood calcium levels

enhances reabsorption of CA+ by the kidneys

front 27

Adrenal Glands

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location: perched on top of the kidneys

produce hormones involved in electrolyte balance and the stress response

front 28

Adrenal Cortex

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-synthesizes steroid hormones called corticosteroids

-Glucocorticoids: influence metabolism; helps body resist stress

-Mineralcorticoids: regulate electrolytes; Stimulates Na+ reabsorption and causes K+ secretion

front 29

Pineal Gland

back 29

location: brain;3rd ventricle of the diencephalon

secretes melatonin which is involved in the sleep cycle; moods

front 30

Pancreas

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location: along the duodenum, behind the stomach

-Hormones produced in Islets of Langerhans (aka Pancreatic Islets)

Contain alpha and beta cells

front 31

Alpha Cells ( α-cells)

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Glucagon arises from α-cells (increase blood glucose cells)

front 32

Beta Cells (β cells)

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Insulin arises from beta cells (lowers blood glucose levels)

front 33

Gonads

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produce steroid sex hormones

front 34

Ovaries (Female Gonads)

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Estrogen (E2): production and preparation of ova/eggs

Progesterone (P4): involved in the menstrual cycle+pregnancy

front 35

Testes (Male gonads)

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Testosterone: production of sperm

front 36

What are the 3 functions of blood?

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Transport, Regulation and Protection

front 37

Transport

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Deliver O2 to the body, get rid of metabolic waste from cells, transport hormones

front 38

Regulation

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Maintaining appropriate body temperature, maintain normal pH in body tissues, maintaining adequate fluid volume in the circulatory system

front 39

Protection

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Preventing blood loss, preventing infection

front 40

Blood is

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the only fluid connective tissue

front 41

Hematocrit

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clinical measures of the amt of RBC's & can therefore be used to indicate perfusion capacity & estimate the viscosity of blood

front 42

Blood accounts for approx. how much of the body weight?

back 42

8%

front 43

What are formed elements?

back 43

Erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets

front 44

Buffy Coat

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a thin, whitish layers separating erythrocytes and plasma after being spun in a centrifuge. contains leukocytes and platelets

- <1 % of whole blood

front 45

Plasma

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It is mostly water (90%) plasma contains nutrients, hormones, gases, electrolytes, wastes and proteins

-Albumin: accounts for 60% of plasma proteins; acts as a carrier to shuttle certain molecules through circulation, is an important blood buffer and is the major blood protein circulating to the plasma osmotic pressure

- 55% of whole blood

front 46

Erythrocytes

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Red Blood Cells

do not contain nucleus

only transport oxygen

-hemoglobin

erythropoiesis

front 47

Hemapoesis/Hematopoesis

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All formed elements arise from stem cell hematocyst

hematopoiesis occurs in the blood marrow

front 48

Myeloid stem cell

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erythrocyte production (erythropoiesis) begins with the hematopoietic stem cell descendant called myeloid stem cell

front 49

Erythropoetin (EPO)

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a glycoprotein stimulates the formation of erythrocytes

triggers:

reduced number of RBC's due to hemorrhage or excessive RBC destruction

insufficient hemoglobin per RBC (as in iron deficient)

reduced availability of oxygen

front 50

Leukocytes

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White Blood Cells

on average there are 4800-10800 WBC's/ul of blood

crucial to our defense against disease

front 51

There are 2 kinds of leukocyte groups

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Granulocytes and Agranulocytes

front 52

What are the Granulocytes?

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Basophils, Eosinophils, Neutrophils (BEN)

front 53

Basophils

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rarest WBC

release histamine (vasodilator) ; contain heparin (an anticoagulant)

increase with chicken pox, sinusitis, diabetes

appearance: bilobed nucleus, large black/purplish cytoplasmic granules

front 54

Eosinophil

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increase with parasitic infections , destroy large parasites, phagocytize antigen AB complexes, complex role in allergies and asthma

appearance: bilobed uncles with red cytoplasmic granules

front 55

Neutrophils

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the most numerous wbc; twice as large as erythrocytes; the most variation

aggressively antibacterial; phagocytize bacteria

appearance: multilobed nucleus; inconspicuous cytoplasmic granules

front 56

What are the Agranulocytes

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Lymphocytes and Monocytes

front 57

Lymphocytes

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T Lymphocytes: function in the immune response by acting directing against virus infected and tumor cells

B Lymphocytes: give rise to plasma cells, which produce antibodies

-mount immune resins by direct cell attack or via antibodies

appearance: nucleus takes up most of the cell

front 58

Monocyte

back 58

the largest leukocyte

triggered by viral infections &inflammation; leave our bloodstream and transform into macrophages; phagocytize pathogens

appearance: u or kidney shaped nucleus

front 59

All blood cells arise from which type of stem cell?

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The PPSC (pluripotent stem cell)

front 60

Life Spans

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Granulocytes: a few hours to 5 days

Monocytes: months to several years

Lymphocytes: provide decades of immunity

Platelets: circulate freely for 5-6 days and 40% are stored in the spleen

front 61

Megakaryocytes

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platelets are cell fragments of megakaryocytes produced by shearing of proplatelets

live in bone marrow, adjacent to blood sinusoids send long tendrils of cytoplasm (pro platelets) into blood sinusoids

front 62

Normal platelet count

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130,000-400,000 platelets/ uL

front 63

Hemostasis

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cessation of bleeding; stops potentially fatal leaks

front 64

what are the 3 hemostatic mechanisms (all involve platelets)

back 64

1) Vascular Spasm (vasoconstriction)

2)Platelet Plug Formation

3)Blood Clotting (coagulation)

front 65

Vascular Spasm

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-MOST immediate protection vs blood loss

-platelets release serotonin (a vasocontrictor)

-pain receptors directly innervate blood vessels to induce constriction

EFFECT: broken vessels rapidly constricts

front 66

Platelet Plug Formation

back 66

- in uninjured, intact vessels

endothelium is smooth, coated w/ prostacyclin (platelet repellant)

-in broken/injured vessels

collagen fibers exposed=rough surface & circulating platelets make contact---->grow pseudopods (stick to damaged cell walls, pull them together)

1.Seratonin- vasoconstriction

2.ADP- attracts & degranulates more platelets

3.Thromboxane- A2; aggregation, degranulation, and vasoconstriction

front 67

Coagulation

back 67

Thrombus is a normal clot

final most effective defense vs bleeding

conversion of plasma protein fibrinogen-->insoluble fibrin threads-->form framework a clot procoagulants-->clotting factors produced by liver& present in plasma

Activate 1 factor--> activate next one--> form reaction cascade

front 68

This cascade is activated by these two pathways

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1.Extrinsic Factor: initiated by factors released from damaged tissues

2.Intrinsic Factor: initiated by factors IN blood

front 69

Platelet Functions

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-Secrete vasoconstrictors-->reduce blood loss

-Secrete procoagulants

-Initiate formation of clot-dissolving enzyme

-Secrete growth factors-->stimulate mitosis--> repair blood vessels

front 70

Fibrinogen-->Fibrin-->Fibrin Polymer

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FYI: fibrinogen is made in the liver; always in plasma

front 71

Completion of Coagulation

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-Activation of Factor X

leads to production of prothrombin activator

-Prothrombin Activator

converts prothrombin to thrombin

-Thrombin

converts fibrinogen into fibrin monomers which covalently bind to form fibrin polymer

factor XII cross links fibrin polymer strands

-Positive Feedback

thrombin speeds up formation of prothrombin activator

front 72

Clotting Disorder

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-lack of clotting

front 73

Hemophilia

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hereditary disease chara. by deficiencies of several different types

front 74

Clotting Disorder

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abnormal clotting

front 75

Thrombosis

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abnormal//disordered clotting in an unbroken vessel, occurs most frequently in inactive people

front 76

Embolus

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clot that travels in blood and blocks vessels

front 77

To prevent initial formation of clots

back 77

-natural anti-coagulants: antithrombin or heparin

-prescription anti-coagulants: vitamin K

front 78

To dissolve clots that have already formed

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-tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)

specific in stroke patients

-Streptokinase

enzyme; used to dissolve clots in coronary vessels but not specific- digests all proteins

-hementin: produced by giant amazon leeches

front 79

Fibronolysis

back 79

dissolution of a clot

front 80

How to prevent inappropriate clotting

back 80

Platelet Repulsion, Thrombin Dilution, Natural Coagulants

front 81

1)Platelet Repulsion

back 81

prostacyclin- prevents platelets from adhering (sticking)

front 82

2)Thrombin Dilution

back 82

as blood flows, volume & rate of flow change thrombin concentration

FYI: during shock, slow <3 rate--> decreases flow-->possible clot formation

front 83

3)Natural Anti-Coagulants

back 83

Heparin: secreted by basophils &mast cells, interfered with formation of prothrombin activator

Antithrombin: from liver; deactivates thrombin before it acts on fibrinogen

front 84

RH factors in pregnant women

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say a pregnant rH - women is carrying a rH+ baby. the first pregnancy results in a healthy baby, but because of the bleeding during the placenta detachment, the mother may become sensitized by her baby rH+ antigens that pass into her bloodstream

front 85

RhoGAM

back 85

a serum containing anti-Rh antibodies. by agglutinating the Rh factor, it blocks the mother's immune response and prevents her sensitization

front 86

Erythroblastosis fetalis (hemolytic disease of the newborn)

back 86

if the mother is not treated after her first pregnancy, and becomes pregnant again with an Rh+ baby, her antibodies will cross through the baby's placenta and destroy the baby's RBC producing erythroblastosis fetalis

baby becomes anemic and hypoxic

front 87

Agglutinogens

back 87

RBC antigens that produce agglutination

front 88

agglutinins

back 88

preformed antibodies//plasma proteins

front 89

ABO blood groups

back 89

based on presence or absence of 2 agglutinogens, type A or type B

front 90

What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine?

back 90

an endocrine gland secretes its products and hormones into the blood and the exocrine glands secrete its products and enzymes into ducts that lead to the target tissue.

front 91

What is the hormone that controls hunger?

back 91

Ghrelin ( my stomach is ghrelin)