Anatomy Final Flashcards

Define: science of body structures and their relationships

Define: science of body functions

Name the steps of the scientific method.

Define: use of senses to notice and study a phenomenon

Define: potential testable explanation for a phenomenon, based on observations and prior knowledge and experience

Define: implementation of specific materials and methods designed to test a hypothesis; should include a control group and experimental group(s)

Define: results generated by conducting experimental tests

Define: statements based on analysis of test results that discuss evidence to support or reject the hypothesis

What happens if many related hypotheses are tested repeatedly over time and consistently yield the same results?

Define: widely accepted concepts based on extensive experimental evidence

Define: also based on extensive experimental extensive, but arise from numerous studies that have been shown to produce exactly the same results every time under the same circumstances

Define: condition of equilibrium in the body's internal environment due to the constant interplay of all the body's regulatory processes

Define: sum of all chemical processes that occur in the human body

Define: phase of metabolism that involves breaking down complex chemical substances into simpler ones; = decomposition reactions

Define: phase of metabolism that involves building complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler ones; = synthesis reactions

Define: any abnormality of function

Define: (more specific) illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms

Define: subjective changes in body functions and not apparent to observer; examples: headache, nausea

Define: objective changes a clinician can observe and measure; examples: swelling, rash, fever, high blood pressure

Define: substance that cannot be split into a simpler substance by ordinary chemical means

Define: smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of an element

Define: number of protons in nucleus of an atom of an element

Define: sum of protons and neutrons in atom

Define: average of all naturally occurring stable isotopes of a given element in AMU (Daltons)

Define: atoms of element that have different numbers of neutrons and thus different mass numbers, but have same number of protons and electrons, so same chemical properties

Define: atom that has positive or negative charge due to giving up or gaining electrons (ionization), which results in unequal number of protons and electrons

Define: two or more atoms (same or different) joined together by sharing of electrons

Define: substance that contains two or more different elements

Define: force of attraction that holds ions having opposite charges together

Define: two or more atoms (same or different) share one or more pairs of their valence electrons equally

Define: two or more atoms (same or different) share one or more pairs of their valence electrons unequally and results in partial negative charge near atom with greater electronegativity and partial positive charge near other atoms

Define: occur between polar molecules that contain polar covalent bonds between H and very electronegative atoms, such as O-H, N-H, or F-H bonds

Define: releases more energy than it absorbs

Define: absorbs more energy than it releases

Define: special type of exchange reaction that involves transfer of electrons between atoms or molecules

Define: in general, lack carbon and are structurally simple; include water, many salts, acids, and bases

Define: contain carbon and many are relatively large and have unique characteristics that allow them to carry out complex functions; include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and ATP

Define: major source of energy used to power reactions in body that require energy; most of this in the cell is produced in the mitochondria and produced by aerobic cellular respiration

Name the 6 major nutrients.

What is the most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living systems?

Define: the storage form of carbohydrates

Define: storage form of lipids

Are proteins stored for future use?

Name the 4 levels of protein structural organization.

Describe the protein structural organization of the primary level.

Describe the protein structural organization of the secondary level.

Describe the protein structural organization of the tertiary level.

Describe the protein structural organization of the quaternary level.

What is the pH scale of 0-14 based on?

What does pH 7 mean?

What classifies as acidic?

What classifies as basic (alkaline)?

Describe an acid.

Describe a base.

Describe a salt.

Acid + base = ?

Do pH of body fluids differ?

Define: substance that resists drastic changes in pH (maintains pH) by converting strong acids or bases into weak ones

Define: encloses and protects cell and contains functional proteins such as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, receptors that bind ligands and regulate cellular activity, transporters that regulate what enters and exits cell, and cell identity markers

Define: cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus; includes cytosol and organelles

Define: fluid that surrounds organelles

Define: specialized structures with characteristic shapes and specific functions in cell growth, maintenance, and reproduction

What does organelles include?

Define: spherical or oval-shaped structure where most of cell's DNA and nucleoli are located; "control center of the cell"

Define: one or more spherical bodies in nucleus that are sites of rRNA synthesis and assembly of rRNA and proteins into ribosomal subunits

Define: site of protein synthesis; attached to nuclear envelope and rough ER, free in cytosol, and in mitochondria

Define: network of folded membranes with attached ribosomes that synthesize proteins, which then enter RER for processing and sorting; synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids

Define: network of folded membranes (with no ribosomes) that synthesizes fatty acids and steroids and may have other functions, such as detoxification of harmful substances, depending on cell type

Define: modifies and packages proteins synthesized in rough ER for transport

Define: generate most of cell's ATP for energy to drive cellular activities; "powerhouse of the cell"

Define: form mitotic spindle during cell division and involved in construction of structures such as flagella and cilia

Define: membrane-enclosed vesicles that contain digestive and hydrolytic enzymes that break down foreign cells, worn out organelles, and a wide variety of molecules

Define: contain oxidative enzymes that can deactivate harmful substances

What is the structural framework of the cell's plasma membrane?

What is the structural framework of the cell's plasma membrane described as?

Is the cell's plasma membrane selectively permeable?

Define: consists of nuclear division during cell division that produces 2 identical daughter cells with diploid number of chromosomes; mainly in somatic cell division

What are the 4 phases of mitosis?

Define: cytoplasmic division during cell division; begins in late anaphase, completed in telophase

Define: period between cell divisions during which cell is functionally and metabolically active and also undergoes growth and duplicates its DNA, organelles, and cytosolic components in anticipation of cell division

Define: reproductive cell division that produces gametes (oocytes in females and sperm in males) in which the number of chromosomes in the nucleus are reduced by half (haploid number)

Define: synthesis of DNA from DNA template

Define: synthesis of mRNA from DNA template

Define: synthesis of amino acid sequence of protein from mRNA template

Define the structure of DNA.

Name the 4 nitrogenous bases of DNA.

What does thymine pair with?

What does guanine pair with?

Describe the structure of RNA.

What does uracil pair with?

What does guanine pair with?

Name the 3 kinds of RNA made from DNA template.

Describe the function of mRNA.

Describe the function of rRNA.

Describe the function of tRNA.

Define: each sequence of 3 nucleotides in mRNA that base-pairs with a DNA base triplet

Define: nucleotide triplet on tRNA that base pairs with complimentary mRNA codon

Define: regions within gene that do not code for parts of protein

Define: regions within gene that do code for parts of protein

Transport processes that move substances across cell membranes are classified as passive or active depending on....?

Define: substances uses its own kinetic energy to move down it concentration or electrochemical gradient across membrane until it reaches equilibrium (equal on both sides); does not require energy

Define: allows passage of nonpolar substances

Define: allows passage of small polar or charge substances (mainly ions)

Define: allows passage of larger and highly polar/charged substances via transporter protein

Define: energy-requiring process in which transport proteins move solutes across membrane against (up) concentration gradient; requires energy

Define: energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP to "pump" substance across membrane against (up) its concentration gradient

Define: harnesses potential energy of steep Na+ or H+ concentration gradient (established by primary active transport of these ions) to transport substance up its concentration gradient as Na+ or H+ move down their concentration gradient

Define: move two or more substances in same direction (part of secondary active transport)

Define: move two or more substances in opposite directions (part of secondary active transport)

Define: vesicles, small sacs that bud off from an existing membrane, transport substances between structures within cell or in and out of cell

Define: materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed by plasma membrane

Define: membrane enclosed "secretory" vesicles form inside cell, fuse with plasma membrane, and release their contents into extracellular fluid

Define: net movement of water across membrane not permeable to solutes

Define: measure of solution's ability to change volume of cells by altering their water content

Define: concentrations of solutes same on both sides of membrane, so water enters and exits at same rate and cells maintain normal shape and volume

Define: has lower concentration of solutes than cytosol, so water enters cells faster than it leaves causing cells to swell and burst

Define: has higher concentration of solutes than cytosol, so water moves out of cells faster than it moves in causing cells to shrink

Define: contact points between plasma membrane of tissue cells

Define: transmembrane proteins fuse adjacent cells' plasma membranes together to retard the passage of substances and form water tight seal so common in urinary and digestive tracts

Define: cells are joined by cadherin proteins of adjacent cells that insert into protein plaques inside plasma membrane so help epithelial surfaces resist separation

Define: have plaques and cadherins that attach cells to one another, but also have intermediate filaments that extend from desmosomes on one side of cell across cytosol to desmosomes on opposite side of cell to prevent cells from separating under tension so common in epidermis and cardiac muscle

Define: similar to desmosomes but contain integrins, rather than cadherins and anchor cells to basement membrane between epithelium and connective tissue

Define: membrane proteins called connexins form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called connexons that connect neighboring cells and allow rapid communication and diffusion of substances between the cells so common in nervous tissue and cardiac muscle

Name the 4 basic types of body tissues.

Define: covers body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavities & ducts, and forms glands

Define: protects and supports body and organs

Define: generates physical force needed to make body structures move

Define: detects changes in conditions inside and outside of body and responds by generating nerve impulses that control other tissues help maintain homeostasis

Name 4 examples of exocrine glands.

Define: exocrine glands that secret sweat into hair follicles or onto the skin's surface to lower body temperature

Define: exocrine glands connected to hair follicles that secrete an oily substance to help prevent hair and skin from drying out

Define: modified sweat glands in external auditory canal that secret ear wax to impede entrance of foreign particles

Define: unicellular exocrine glands that secret mucus to help lubricate and protect lining of GI tract and help trap foreign particles in respiratory tract so they can be moved back out by cilia

Define: includes tissues such as adipose (loose CT), tendons & ligaments (dense CT), cartilage, bone, blood, and lymph

Describe connective tissue.

Define: muscle fibers use ATP to generate force

Name the 3 types of muscle tissue.

Define: usually attached to bones of skeleton, voluntary, and striated (alternating light/dark bands on stained fibers)

Define: forms most of wall of heart, involuntary, branched, striated, and contains intercalated discs (with gap junctions and desmosomes)

Define: located in walls of hollow organs (blood vessels, airways, digestive, urinary, reproductive), involuntary, and nonstriated

Define: controls and integrates all body activities within limits that maintain life

Name the 3 basic functions of nervous tissue.

Define: functional unit of nervous system; has the capacity to produce action potentials; receive and conduct nerve impulses

Define: nervous system cells that have supportive roles; do not receive or conduct nerve impulses

Define: includes skin, hair, and nails

Define: covers body, protects underlying tissues, and contains accessory structures that function in protection from microbes and sun, thermoregulation, and tactile sensations

Define: exocrine glands found throughout most of the body that secrete sweat into hair follicles or onto the skin's surface to lower body temperature

Define: exocrine glands connected to hair follicles that secrete an oily substance to help prevent hair and skin from drying out

Define: smooth muscle near hair that is stimulated by autonomic nervous system to contract under conditions of stress (such as cold or fright)

Define: encapsulated nerve ending that senses light touch

Define: encapsulated nerve ending that detects deep pressure

Name the 3 functions of the skeletal system.

Define: structural framework for body; supports soft tissues and provides attachment points for tendons of most skeletal muscles

Define: protects many internal organs from injury

Define: bones and muscles work together to produce movement; muscles are attached to bones, so when they contract, they pull bones

Name the 3 functions of bone tissue.

Define: several minerals, mainly calcium and phosphorus, are stored in bone tissue and released on demand into blood to maintain critical mineral balances and to distribute minerals to other parts of body

Describe blood cell production.

Describe triglyceride storage.

Define: decrease in angle

Define: increase in angle, usually restoring to anatomical position

Define: movement of a bone away from the midline

Define: movement of a bone towards the midline

Define: movement at distal end of body part in a circle (continuous sequence of flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction)

Define: bone revolves arounds its own longitudinal axis

Define: movement of forearm to turn palm anteriorly or superiorly

Define: movement of forearm to turn palm posteriorly or inferiorly

Define: basic functional units of a myofibril in muscle, separated by z discs

Name the 3 types of proteins that myofibrils are composed of.

Name the 2 contractile proteins.

Name the 2 regulatory proteins.

Name the 3 structural proteins.

What is muscle action stimulated by?

What is resting membrane potential?

What is threshold potential?

Define: involves opening of Na+ ion channels and produces action potential if threshold is reached, which causes opening of more Na+ channels and leads to contraction due to opening of voltage-gated Ca++ channels

Define: involves closing of Na+ channels and opening of K+ channels and leads to relaxation due to closing of Ca++ channels

Define: heads of myosin bind and form crossbridges with actin and pull the thin filaments toward the M line (midline); requires energy from ATP hydrolysis

In relaxed muscle (no Ca present), ____________, held in place by ____________, covers myosin binding sites on actin and prevents the formation of crossbridges

When sufficient Ca is present, it binds to ____________, which changes shape and moves ___________, thereby exposing binding sites to allow crossbridge formation

What is resting membrane potential in a neuron?

What is resting membrane potential in a muscle cell?

Define: small local changes from resting membrane potential

Define: membrane becomes more positive; can build to threshold potential, so excitatory

Define: membrane becomes more negative; makes it less likely to reach threshold, so inhibitory

What is threshold potential?

Name the 2 divisions of the nervous system.

Define: consists of brain and spinal cord

Define: consists of the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, which contain both sensory and motor fibers

Name the 3 divisions of the PNS.

Define: sensory neurons from skin and special sensory receptors to the CNS motor neurons to skeletal muscle

Define: sensory neurons from visceral organs to CNS; motor neurons to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands; sympathetic division: "fight or flight" stress and emergency responses; parasympathetic division: "rest and digest" maintenance of homeostasis (usually dominates)

Define: involuntary sensory and motor neurons that control gastrointestinal tract

Define: functional unit of nervous system

Describe a neuron.

Define: one to many short, branched processes that receive input and conduct graded potentials toward cell body

Define: one thin, typically long process that conducts nerve impulses away from cell body (sends output) and releases neurotransmitter from synaptic end bulbs at ends of axon terminals; only one present, but branches to make many contacts; most are myelinated

Define: nervous system cells that have supportive roles; do not conduct nerve impulses

Name the 4 neuroglia found in the CNS.

Define: maintain chemical environment in CNS and help form the blood-brain barrier

Define: phagocytic role

Define: form myelin sheath around CNS axons

Define: line the cerebral cavities and produce cerebrospinal (CSF) fluid

Name the 2 neuroglia found in the PNS.

Define: form a myelin sheath around PNS axons

Define: role not clear, but believed to maintain chemical environment in PNS

Most axons of PNS neurons are covered by what?

Define: gaps between myelin sheaths where many voltage-gated channels are located

Define: myelin acts as electrical insulator and speeds conduction of nerve impulses

Define: slow because small diameter and no myelin insulation

Define: rapid nerve conduction that occurs in myelinated fibers where signal jumps node to node of Ranvier

Define: slow nerve conduction that occurs in unmyelinated fibers where entire length of axon must be depolarized step by step

Define: released from axon terminals, diffuse across synaptic cleft, and bind to receptors on target cell; may be excitatory or inhibitory

Define: excitatory on neuromuscular junction but inhibitory at others

Define: major excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS and PNS

Define: major inhibitory neurotransmitter in forebrain

Define: major inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain stem, spinal cord, and PNS

Define: regulates mood, dreaming, and awakening from sleep

Define: regulates skeletal muscle tone

Define: regulates mood, temperature, and induction of sleep

Define: enhances perception of pain

Define: relieve pain by blocking the release of substance P

Define: pathways for travel of sensory and motor information

Name the 2 spinal cord nerve tracts.

Define: carry sensory information from spinal cord to brain

Define: carry motor information from brain to spinal cord

Define: extends from brain stem to cerebrum and surrounds third ventricle

Define: relays almost all sensory input to the cerebral cortex

Define: controls and integrates activities of the autonomic nervous system and the pituitary gland

Define: contains pineal gland, which secretes melatonin to promote sleepiness

Subthalamus containing subthalamic nuclei that work with basal ganglia to help control body movements

Define: portion of brain between spinal cord and diencephalon

Name the 3 parts that make up the brain stem.

Describe the medulla oblongata.

Describe pons.

Describe midbrain.

Define: posterior to medulla and pons and inferior to posterior cerebrum

List the functions of the cerebellum.

Define: consists of cerebral cortex (outer rim of gray matter), white matter (interior), and gray matter nuclei deep within white matter

The cerebrum is divided into...?

What is the function of each hemisphere?

Define: functional asymmetry between the two hemispheres

What is the left hemisphere important for?

What is the right hemisphere important for?

Name the 5 lobes of the brain.

Define: receive nerve impulses for specific stimuli; determines location and basic characteristics of stimuli

Define: controls voluntary contractions of specific muscles or muscle groups

Define: brain region where planning and production of speech occurs

Define: inability to use or comprehend words; caused by injury to language areas (Broca's speech area)

Define: usually receive input from primary sensory areas and other brain regions, including thalamus; integrate/interpret sensory info by comparing with past sensory (memory)

Define: motor association area that controls learned skilled movements and stores memory for such movements

Define: 3 nuclei deep within each cerebral hemisphere that help regulate initiation and termination of movements

Define: has primary role in emotions, olfaction, and memory

Define: involved in stimulating and maintaining arousal and consciousness

Define: acquiring new knowledge

Define: process of retaining and retrieving information

Define: collection of action potentials and graded potentials generated by neurons in brain

Define: record of brain waves (electrical signals) used for studying normal brain activity and diagnosing disorders such as tumor, trauma, and epilepsy

Define: state of altered or partial consciousness from which a person can be aroused

Name the 2 components of sleep.

Do both alternate throughout sleep?

When do most dreams occur?

What does sleep deprivation impair?

Name the 4 receptors for somatic sensations.

Define: sense joint position and movement and muscle length and tension

Define: sense pain; found in all tissues of the body except the brain

Define: sense warmth or cold

Define: sense touch, pressure, vibration, tickle, and itch

What do special senses involve?

Define: sense of taste; chemical sense in which tastants are dissolves in saliva and detected by gustatory hairs in taste buds

Define: detect 5 gustatory stimuli

Name the 5 gustatory stimuli.

Where does the taste on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue come from?

Where does the taste on the posterior 1/3 of the tongue come from?

Define: sense of smell; chemical sense in which odorants are dissolved and detected by olfactory hairs of olfactory receptors

Define: formed by bundles of olfactory receptor (1st order neurons) axons that terminate in olfactory bulb

Define: formed by axons of olfactory bulb neurons (2nd order neurons) that project to lateral olfactory area in temporal lobe

Define: transparent and curved coat that covers iris that functions in refraction of light; helps focus light onto retina

Define: refracts light; help focus light on macula lutea of retina to provide clear images

Define: colored portion of eye that faces anteriorly

Define: hole in center that functions to regulate amount of light entering eye

What is changing size of pupil regulated by?

Define: circular muscles contract in bright light to constrict pupil

Define: radial muscles contract in dim light to dilate pupil

Define: serves as beginning of visual pathway

Define: site where optic nerve exits back of eyeball; blind spot because contains no photoreceptors (rods and cones)

What are the 2 layers of the retina?

Define: nonvisual portion that has melanin; absorbs stray light and help keep image sharp and clear

Define: multilayered outgrowth of brain that processes visual input; then sends nerve impulses down axons that form optic nerves

Where are photoreceptors located?

What are photoreceptors named for?

Define: photoreceptors active in dim light that detect shades of gray; contains photopigment called rhodopsin

Define: photoreceptors active in bright light with photopigments to detect color; each one contains one of 3 different photopigments (opsins) for color; produce sharper vision than rods

Define: normal eye that can sufficiently refract light rays from an object 20 ft away so that a clear image is focused on the retina

Define: nearsightedness

Why does nearsightedness occur?

Define: farsightedness

Why does farsightedness occur?

Define: parts of image are out of focus, producing blurred or distorted vision

Why does astigmatism occur?

Name the 3 major processes involved in image formation.

Define: collects sound waves

Define: directs sound waves to tympanic membrane

Define: vibrated by sound waves, which vibrates ear ossicles in turn

Define: transmit and amplify vibrations to oval window; include: malleus, incus, and stapes

Define: contains series of fluids, channels, and membranes that transmit vibrations to organ of Corti for hearing

Define: contains hair receptors cells that produce receptor potentials, which elicit nerve impulses in cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII)

Where do nerve impulses eventually reach?

Define: contains receptor organs for sense of equilibrium

What does the vestibular apparatus include?

What does movement of stereocilia on hair cells of saccule and utricle lead to?

Define: maintenance of body position (mainly the head) relative to the force of gravity

Define: maintenance of body position (mainly the head) during sudden movements such as rotation, acceleration, or deceleration

Define: contain hair (receptor) cells for dynamic equilibrium

Define: contain hair cells for dynamic and static equilibrium