Myers' Psychology for AP*: AP Psychology Exam Flashcards
empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation
structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind
functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish
experimental psychology
the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most research psychologist today agree with (1) but not with (2)
humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individuals potential for personal growth
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
nature-nuture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experiences make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
natural selection
the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
biopsychosocial approach
the integrated viewpoint incorporates various levels of analysis and offers a more complete picture of any given behavior or mental process
levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
biological psychology
a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological and psychological processes
evolutionary psychology
the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning
cognitive psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
social-cultural
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
basic research
pire science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
developmental psychology
the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change through out the life span
educational psychology
the stud of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
human factors psychology
the study of how people and machines interact an the design of safe and easily used machines and environments
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems of living and in achieving greater well being
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assess, and treats people with psychological disorders
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it (i knew it all along)
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
theory
a explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
hypothesis
a testable prediction often implied by a theory
operational definitions
a statement of the procedures used to define research variables
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative random sample of the group
population
all the cases in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
correlation
a measure of the extension to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots each of which represent the values of two variables
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exist
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent) to obsess the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent)
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
double blind procedure
an experimental procedures in which both the research procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo
placebo
experimental results cause by expectations alone
experimental group
in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the tremens, that is, to one version of the independent variable
control group
in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
dependent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to the manipulations of the independent variable
mode
the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution
median
the middle score in a distribution
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
normal curve
a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough too enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
debriefing
the post experimental explanation of a study including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants
biological psychologists
a branch of psychology conceded with the links between biology and behavior
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory respecters to the brain and spinal cord
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and special cord to the muscles and glands
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory input and motor outputs
dendrites
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
axon
the extensions of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
myelin sheath
a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the revive neuron
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
reuptake
a neurotranmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
endorphins
"morphine with in" natural pain killers, linked to pain control and pleasure
nervous system
the body's speedy chemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral na central nervous system
central nervous sytem (CNS)
included the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
nerves
bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs
somatice nervous system
voluntary movement; skeletal muscles
autonomic nervous system
controls glands and the muscle of our internal organs (heartbeat, digestions, etc)
sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight
parasympathetic nervous system
returns body to natural state
reflex
automatic responses to stimuli
endocrine system
interconnect in the nervous system that is a second communication system. "slow" chemical communication system; set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
hormones
chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues, including the brain
adrenal glands
at the top of the kidneys; help arouse the body in times of stress; release epinephrine and norepinephrine (fight or flight response)
pituitary gland
a pea-size structure located in the core of the brain; releases hormones that influence growth
lesion
tissue destruction
electroencephalogram (EEG)
amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface
CT scan
examines the brain by taking X-ray photos that can reveal brain damage
PET scan
depicts brain activity by showing each brain area's consumption of its chemical fuel, the sugar glucose
MRI
brain scans, the head is put in a strong magnetic field, which aligns the spinning atoms of brain molecules
fMRI
can reveal the brain's functioning as well as its structure
brainstem
brain's oldest and innermost region; responsible for several automatic survival functions
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
reticular formation
"netlike" finger-shaped network of neurons that extends from the spill cord right up to the thalamus; plays important role in controlling arousal
thalamus
sitting at the top of the brainstem; the brain's sensory switchboard; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortes and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
cerebellum
"little brain"; deals with coordinating movement output and balance
limbic system
includes: hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus; located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
hypothalamus
located just blow the thalamus; important link in the chain of command governing bodily maintenance (eating, drinking, body temp)
cerebral cortex
a thin surface later of interconnected neural cells; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
glial cells
"glue cells"; support, nourish, and protect neurons
frontal lobe
involved in speaking, muscles movements, planning, and judgment
occipital lobes
in the back of the head; includes areas that receive visual information
temporal lobes
just above the ears; receives auditory information
motor cortex
controls voluntary movement
sensory cortex
controls body touch and movement sensations (involuntary movement)
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not included in primary motor or sensory functions; learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
aphasia
impaired use of language
Broca's area
disrupts speaking
Wernicke's area
disrupts understanding
plasticity
the brain's ability to change; ability to modify itself after some types of damage
neurogenesis
formation of new neurons
corpus callosum
large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and caring messages between them
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers
consciousness
awareness of ourselves and our environment
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain's activity liked with out mental processes
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influence on behavior
environment
every non genetic influence from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
DNA
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism consisting of all the genetic material in that organisms chromosomes
identical twins
twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two creating two genetically identical organisms
fraternal twins
twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs
heritability
the proportion of variation around individuals that we can attribute to genes
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another factor
molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection
natural selection
the principle that, amount the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to change
sensation
process which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
perception
process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works ip to the brain's integration of sensory information
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
inattention blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity and our psychological experience of them
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
signal detection theory
predicts when we will detect weak signals; measured as our ratio to "hits" to "false alarms"
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
priming
the activation often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
difference threshold
"noticeable difference" is the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli half the time
Weber's Law
the principal that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount)
sensory adaptation
our demising sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus
pupil
pupil
iris
ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
retina
the light sensitive inner surface of the eye containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white and grey; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Gives fine detail and give rise to color sensations
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, no receptor cells are located there
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
feature detector
ability to respond to a scene's specific feature
parallel processing
processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously
Young-Helmholtz (three color) theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision
audition
the sense or act of hearing
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
place theory
in hearing the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rates of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts soul waves to the cochlea
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
conduction hearing loss
problems with the technical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
sensorineural hearing loss
damage to the cochlea's hair cell receptor or their associated nerves
kinesthesis
your sense of the position and movement of your body part
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position including the sense of balance
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another
gestalt
an organized whole. these psychologist emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
proximity
groups of nearby figures
similarity
group similar figures together
continuity
perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
connectedness
we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
closure
we fill in gaps to create a complete whole object
depth perception
seeing object in three dimension, enables us to estimate their distance from us
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
retinal disparity
provides on important binocular cue to the relative distance of different objects
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective available to either eye alone
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blind on and off in quick succession
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths selected by the object
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis