Gould's Pathophysiology for the Health Professions: Blood and Circulatory System Disorders Flashcards

• Transports essential oxygen to tissues along with nutrients required for cellular metabolism
• provides for the necessary removal of many cell wastes
• plays a critical role in the body's defenses/immune system
• serves in maintaining body homeostasis
• Provides a mechanism for controlling body temperature by distributing Core heat throughout the peripheral tissues

1. The pulmonary circulation
2. The systemic circulation

• allows The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs

• Provides for the exchange of nutrients and wastes between the blood and the cells throughout the body

• Transports Blood away from the heart

• The smaller branches of arteries
• Controls the amount of blood flowing into the capillaries in specific areas through the degree of contraction of smooth muscle in the vessel wall

• Very small vessels
• Forms the microcirculation
• Blood flow very slowly through capillaries
• precapillary sphincters
• Single endothelial layer
  • Facilitates the exchange of fluid, oxygen, carbon dioxide, electrolytes glucose, and other nutrients and waste between the blood and interstitial fluid

• Determines the amount of blood flowing from the arterioles into the individual capillaries
• depends on the metabolic needs of the tissues

• conduct blood from the capillary beds toward the heart

• returns blood back to the heart
• Have thinner walls than arteries and less smooth muscles

• the blood vessels that hold the major portion of theintravascular blood volume
• veins

1. Tunica Intima
   
   • the inner layer
   • endothelium (simple squamous)
   • flat so fluid can be exchanged back-and-forth
2. Tunica Media
   
   • The middle layer
   • Layer of smooth muscle
   • Controls the diameter and lumen size
3. Tunica Adventitia
   
   • outer connective tissue layer
   • Contains elastic and collagen fibers

• A reflex adjustment in a small area of a tissue
• varies depending on the needs of the cells in the area

• decrease in pH
• increase in carbon dioxide
• decrease in oxygen

• Water and its dissolve solutes (plasma) = 55% of the whole blood volume
• remaining 45% is composed of the cells or formed elements erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes

• Refers to The proportion of cells in blood
• Indicates the viscosity of the blood

• The clear yellowish fluid remaining after the cells have been removed
• contains:
  • water 92%
  • plasma proteins 7%
  • other solutes 1%
    • Amino acids
    • Carbohydrates
    • Lipids
    • Vitamins
    • Hormones
    • Enzymes
    • Electrolytes
    • Wastes

• Refers to the fluid and solutes remaining after the cells and fibrinogen has been removed

• Albumin
• Globulins/Anti-bodies
• fibrinogen

• Maintains osmotic pressure in the blood

• essential for the formation of blood clots

• Origination of all blood cells
• found in the flat and irregular bones, ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and pelvis

• Biconcave flexible discs
• non-nucleated when mature state
• Contain hemoglobin
• Size and structure are essential for easy passage to small capillaries
• life span = 120 days b/c no nucleus

• Originates in the kidney
• Hormone that stimulates erythrocyte production in the red bone marrow

• Consists of:
  • the globlin portion
    • two pairs of amino acid chains
  • four heme groups
    • each containing a ferrous iron atom, to which oxygen molecule can attach

• A bright red color that distinguishes arterial blood from venous blood

• Dark bluish red in color and font and venous blood

• Production of white blood cells
• Stimulated by colony stimulating factors that are produced by cells such as macrophages and T lymphocytes

• Makes up only about 1% of blood volume
• Subdivided into two categories:
  1. Granulocytes
  2. Agranulocytes
• All types develop in differentiate from the original stem cell in bone marrow
• There are five types of leukocytes
  1. Lymphocytes
  2. Neutrophils
  3. Basophils
  4. Eosinophils
  5. Monocytes

• Makes up 30 to 40% of the white blood cells

• The most common leukocyte
• Makes up 50 to 60% of White blood cells
• Survive only four days
• The first to respond to any tissue damage And phagocytosis
• Increase in numbers by bacterial affection

• Can release histamine and heparin
• Maybe fixed in tissues or wandering

• Combat the effects of histamine
• Increase by allergic rea ctions and parasitic infections

• can enter the tissue to become macrophages

• Indicates the proportion the specific types of white blood cells in the blood
• Assist in making a diagnosis

• Essential part of the blood clotting process
• Not cells
• Non-nucleated

1. An immediate response of a blood vessel to injury is vasoconstriction of vascular spasm
2. Form a platelet plug in the vessel
3. Coagulation mechanism

• an anticoagulant
• Released from basophils or mast cells in the tissues
• Blocks thrombin
• Does not dissolve clots but prevents further growth of the thrombus

• Determined by the presence of specific antigens on the cell membranes of erythrocytes

• An inherited characteristic
• Depends on the presence of type A or B antigens

• Lack A and B antigens
• are considered universal donors

• Are universal recipients

• May cause blood and incompatibility if the mother is Rh negative and the fetus is Rh positive
• Antigen D in plasma membrane = RH positive
• Absence of antigen D = RH negative

• Includes total red blood cells, white blood cells, platelet count, and morphology (size and shape), a differential count for white blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit values

• An increase in white blood cells
• Often associated with inflammation or infection

• Decrease in leukocytes
• Occurs with some viral infections as well as with radiation and chemo therapy

• Common with allergic responses and parasitic infections

• Observe with blood sMears
• Shows size, shape, uniformity, and maturity of cells
  • Helps to distinguish different types of anemia

• Amount of hemoglobin per unit volume of blood
• Mean corpuscular volume
  • Indicates the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
• Mean corpuscular hemoglobin

• Assessment of bone marrow function

• Determine serum levels of components such as iron, vitamin B12, folic acid, cholesterol, urea, and glucose

• Measures platelet function

• Measures function of various factors in coagulation process
• interNational normalized ratio is a standardized version

• Measures the intrinsic pathway
• PTT... the 2 t's are in(trinsic) a relationship

• measures the extrinsic pathway

• A reduction in oxygen transport in the blood due to a decrease in hemoglobin content
• May result from the declining production of the protein, a decrease in the number of erythrocytes, or a combination of these factors
• May be classified by typical cell morphology
• oxygen deficiency leads to:
  • Less energy production and all cells
    • Cell metabolism and reproduction diminished
  • Compensation mechanism to improve the oxygen supply
    • ex:
      • Tachycardia
      • peripheral vasoconstriction
  • General signs of anemia
    • Fatigue, Pallor, dyspnea, and tachycardia
  • Decrease regeneration of epithelial cells

• Insufficient iron impairs hemoglobin synthesis
  • Which reduces the amount of oxygen transported in the blood
• Red blood cells are microcytic and hypochromic
• Very common
• Ranges from mild to severe
• Occurs in all age groups
• One in five women is affected
  • Proportion increases for pregnant women
• Frequently a sign of an underlying problem

• Dietary intake of iron may be below the minimum requirement
• Chronic blood loss
• duodenal absorption of iron may be impaired
• Severe liver disease may affect both iron absorption and iron storage

• pallor of the skin and mucous membranes
• Due to vasoconstriction

• Fatigue,lethargy, and cold intolerance
  • b/c cell metabolism decreased
• Irritability
  • A central nervous system response to hypoxia
• Degenerative changes
  • such as brittle hair, spoon shaped and rigid nails
• Inflammation of oral mucosa and tongue
• Menstrual irregularities
• Delayed healing
• Tachycardia, heart palpitations, dyspnea, syncope

* People who have iron deficiency anemia may have unusual craving for nonfood items such as ice, paint, or starch. This craving is called pica

• Laboratory test demonstrate low values of hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin, serum ferritin and serum iron, and transferrin saturation

• Identified underlying cause and resolves if possible
• Consume Iron rich foods or iron supplements

• The common form of megaloblastic anemia
• Caused by the malabsorption of the vitamin B₁₂
• Iron deficiency may be present as well
• Red blood cells are very large and contain nuclei
• Dietary and sufficiency is a very rare cause
• May be an outcome of surgeries in which the parietal cells are removed or resection of the ileum which is a sight of absorption

• Vitamin B₁₂ is needed for the function and maintenance of neurons
• Deficiency can result in neuropsychiatric symptoms

• Tongue is typically in large, red, sore, and shiny
• Decrease in gastric acid leads to digestive discomfort such as nausea and diarrhea
• Tingling or burning sensations in the extremities or loss of coordination and ataxia

• Microscopic examination (erythrocytes)
• Bone marrow examination (hyperactive)
• Vitamin B₁₂ serum levels below normal

• Oral supplements are recommended
• Vitamin B₁₂ is administered by injection

• Results from impairment or failure of bone marrow leading to loss of stem cells and pancytopenia
• may be temporary or permanent
• often idiopathic

• decreased numbers of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes in the blood.

• results from excessive destruction of RBCs
• leads to a low erythrocyte count and low hemoglobin
• causes:
  • genetic defects
  • immune reactions
  • Changes in blood chemistry
  • Presence of toxins in the blood
  • Infections such as malaria
  • Antigen-antibody reaction
    • Incompatible blood transfusion

• PANCYTOPENIA

• a single endothelial layer

• lacks A and B antigens.

• Vitamin B₁₂ deficit causing peripheral nerve demyelination

• Deficit of oxygen for epithelial cell mitosis and metabolism

• The ingested vitamin would not be absorbed into the blood.

• Erythrocytes change to sickle shape when hypoxia occurs

• increased blood volume.

• intrinsic factor or parietal cells.

• increased bleeding.

• Heparin

• Decreased platelets

• plasma cells.

• Hodgkin’s lymphoma.

• Chronic leukemias are more common in older people.

• acute myelogenous leukemia (AML).

• It stimulates production of red blood cells.

• iron deficiency anemia.