Types of Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is the creation of an
offspring by fusion of a male gamete (sperm)
and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote
• Asexual reproduction is creation of offspring
without the fusion of egg and sperm
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• Many invertebrates reproduce asexually by
fission, separation of a parent into two or
more individuals of about the same size
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• In budding, new individuals arise from
outgrowths of existing ones
• Fragmentation is breaking of the body into
pieces, some or all of which develop into
adults
• Fragmentation must be accompanied by
regeneration, regrowth of lost body parts
• Parthenogenesis is the development of a new
individual from an unfertilized egg
Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary Enigma
• Sexual females have half as many daughters as
asexual females; this is the “twofold cost” of
sexual reproduction
• Despite this, almost all eukaryotic species
reproduce sexually
•Sexual reproduction results in genetic recombination, which provides potential advantages
An increase in variation in offspring, providing an increase in the reproductive success of parents in changing environments
An increase in the rate of adaptation
A shuffling of genes and the elimination of harmfulgenes from a population
Reproductive Cycles
• Ovulation
– The release of mature eggs at the midpoint of a
female cycle
• Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles related
to changing seasons
• Reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones
and environmental cues
• Because seasonal temperature is often an
important cue in reproduction, climate change
can decrease reproductive success
Reproductive Cycles
(Con't)
• Some organisms can reproduce sexually or
asexually, depending on conditions
• Several genera of fishes, amphibians, and
lizards reproduce only by a complex form of
parthenogenesis that involves the doubling of
chromosomes after meiosis
• Asexual whiptail lizards are descended from a
sexual species, and females still exhibit mating
behaviors
Variation in Patterns of Sexual
Reproduction
• For many animals, finding a partner for sexual
reproduction may be challenging
• One solution is hermaphroditism, in which
each individual has male and female
reproductive systems
• Two hermaphrodites can mate, and some
hermaphrodites can self‐fertilize
• Individuals of some species undergo sex
reversals
• Some species exhibit male to female reversal
(for example, certain oysters), while others
exhibit female to male reversal (for example, a
coral reef fish)
Fertilization
External
• The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of
egg and sperm, play an important part in
sexual reproduction
• In external fertilization, eggs shed by the
female are fertilized by sperm in the external
environment
Fertilization
Internal
• In internal fertilization, sperm are deposited
in or near the female reproductive tract, and
fertilization occurs within the tract
• Internal fertilization requires behavioral
interactions and compatible copulatory organs
•All fertilization requires critical timing, often
mediated by environmental cues,
pheromones, and/or courtship behavior
Gamete Production and Delivery
• To reproduce sexually, animals must produce
gametes
• In most species individuals have gonads, organs
that produce gametes
• Some simple systems do not have gonads, but
gametes form from undifferentiated tissue
• More elaborate systems include sets of accessory
tubes and glands that carry, nourish, and protect
gametes and developing embryos
Human Reproduction
Female Reproductive Anatomy
• The female external reproductive structures
include the clitoris and two sets of labia
• The internal organs are a pair of gonads and a
system of ducts and chambers that carry
gametes and house the embryo and fetus
Human Reproduction
Female Reproductive Anatomy
Overies
• Ovaries
• The female gonads, the ovaries, lie in the
abdominal cavity
• Each ovary contains many follicles, which
consist of a partially developed egg, called an
oocyte, surrounded by support cells
• Once a month, an oocyte develops into an
ovum (egg) by the process of oogenesis
Human Reproduction
Female Reproductive Anatomy
Ovaries
Ovulation expels an egg cell from the follicle, the cells of which produce estradiol prior to ovulation
• The remaining follicular tissue grows within the ovary, forming a mass called the corpus luteum
• The corpus luteum secretes estradiol and progesterone that helps to maintain pregnancy
• If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
degenerates
Human Reproduction
Oogenesis
– Production of eggs, aka ova
– Begins in the developing ovaries of a female
embryo
Starts with the formation of diploid cells called
oogonia
• Can occur as early as the 6th week of embryonic
development
•From about the 9th through 20th weeks, the oogonia
enlarge and differentiate, becoming primary oocytes
Female Reproductive Tract
Oogenesis
By the 20th week, all of the primary oocytes have begun meiotic cell
division, but stop during prophase of meiosis I
– None of the primary oocytes will resume meiotic cell division until
puberty, probably 11 to 14 years later
– A woman is born with her lifetime’s supply of
primary oocytes—about 1 to 2 million—
– No new ones are generated later in life
•Many of these die each day, but about 400,000
still remain at puberty
• This process is called atresia
Female Reproductive Tract
Follicles
– The oocyte plus the layer cells that surrounds it (called
follicular cells)
– The hormonal changes of the menstrual cycle stimulate the development of about a dozen
follicles
The small follicle cells multiply, providing
nourishment for the developing oocyte
– In response to hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary, they also release estrogen into the bloodstream
– Usually, only ONE follicle reaches maturity
Female Reproductive Tract
Follicular Development
The Primary Follicle
– Contains a primary oocyte completes meiosis I
– Dividing into a single secondary oocyte and a
polar body, a small cell that is little more than a
discarded set of chromosomes
– Meiosis II will not occur unless the egg is
fertilized
– Develops into a Secondary Follicle
•Still contains a secondary oocyte, from here one
in….
Female Reproductive Tract
Follicular Development
The Secondary Follicle
– As the follicle matures, it becomes larger and
fills with fluid
The Graafian Follicle
• Fully mature
•Ovulation occurs when the follicle erupts through the surface of the ovary, releasing its secondary
oocyte
• From this point, the ovulated secondary oocyte can be considered an egg
• Some of the follicle cells accompany the egg,
• Most of them remain in the ovary, where they
enlarge, forming a temporary gland called the
corpus luteum
Female Reproductive Tract
Follicular Development
• Corpus Luteum secretes:
– Estrogen and Progesterone
• Stimulate the development of the uterine lining
• Play crucial roles in controlling the menstrual
cycle
–If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum
degenerates a few days later
– Therefore, it is a temporary endocrine gland
Female Reproductive Tract
Journey of the Ova
The ova is ushered into the fallopian tubes
The Fallopian tubes
• Fringed with ciliated “fingers” called fimbria that nearly surround the ovary
• Lined with cilia
•The current from the beating cilia carries the egg down towards the uterus
• May be fertilized at this point
Female Reproductive Tract
Journey of the Ova
The Uterus
– Uterine walls have 2 layers
– Endometrium
• Inner lining
• Richly supplied with blood
• Filled with glands that secrete carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins
•Will form the mother’s contribution of the
placenta
Female Reproductive Tract
Journey of the Ova
The Uterus-Myometrium
– Myometrium
• Outer, muscular layer
•Contracts during childbirth, expelling the infant out of the uterus
•The outer end of the uterus is nearly closed off by the cervix, a ring of connective tissue that
encircles a tiny opening
•The cervix holds the developing baby in the uterus and then expands during labor, permitting passage of the child
Female Reproductive Tract
The Uterus-The Cervix
– The Cervix
• Closes off the outer end of the uterus
• Ring of connective tissue with a small opening
• Holds the developing baby in the uterus
•Expands during labor, permitting passage of the child
Female Reproductive Tract
The Vagina
– Opens to the outside
The lining is acidic, which reduces the likelihood of infections
– Serves both as the receptacle for the penis and
sperm during intercourse and as the birth canal
Male Reproductive Tract
Testes
– Located in the scrotum
•This location keeps the testes about 1º to 6º F (about 0.5º to 3º C) cooler than the core of the bod
• Cooler temperatures promote sperm development
– Coiled, hollow seminiferous tubules where sperm
are produced, nearly fill each testis
Interstitial cellsthat synthesize testosterone are
located in the spaces between the tubules
Male Reproductive Tract
Testes: Sperm Production
– Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
– Spermatogonia cells give rise to sperm and Sertoli
cells
– Sertoli cells nourish the developing sperm and regulate their growth
– Spermatogonia:
• Diploid cells
•Undergo mitotic cell division to form two types of daughter cells
• One remains a spermatogonium, ensuring a steady
supply
• The other committed to spermatogenesis, the
processes that produce haploid sperm
Male Reproductive Tract
Testes: Spermatogenesis
• Spermatogonia, spermatocytes, and
spermatids are enfolded in the Sertoli cells
• As spermatogenesis proceeds, the developing
sperm migrate to the central cavity of the
seminiferous tubule into which the mature
sperm are released
Male Reproductive Tract Vs Female Reproductive Track
• Spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis in three
ways
– All four products of meiosis develop into sperm
while only one of the four becomes an egg
– Spermatogenesis occurs throughout adolescence
and adulthood
– Sperm are produced continuously without the
prolonged interruptions in oogenesis
Male Reproductive Tract
Testes: Spermiogenesis
•A human sperm is unlike any other cell of the body
• Most of the cytoplasm disappears
• The nucleus nearly fills the sperm’s head
• Acrosome: specialized lysosome
Contains enzymes to dissolve protective layers
around the egg, enabling the sperm to enter and
fertilize it
•Behind the head is the midpiece, which is packed
with mitochondria
•Flagellum: obtains energy from the mitochondria
and propels the sperm
Male Reproductive Tract
Sperm: The Route out of the Body
– The seminiferous tubules merge to form the
epididymis, a long, continuous, folded tube
– The epididymis leads to the vas deferens, a tubule
that carries sperm out of the scrotum
The vas deferens joins the urethra, which conducts
urine out of the body during urination and sperm
out of the body during ejaculation
•Most of the roughly hundred million sperm produced by a human male each day are stored in the vas
deferens and epididymis
Male Reproductive Tract
Sperm: The Route out of the Body
– Sperm has fluids added to it en route to make it:
– Semen, is about 5% sperm, mixed with secretions
from three types of glands that empty into the vas
deferens or the urethra:
– The seminal vesicles
– The prostate gland
– The bulbourethral glands
Male Reproductive Tract
Sperm: The Route out of the Body
• Seminal Vesicles
-Paired
Fluid from these glands comprises about 60% of the semen
• Fluid is rich in fructose,provides energy for the sperm
• Its slightly alkaline pH
Protects the sperm from the acidity of urine remaining in the urethra and from acidic secretions in
the vagina
• Also contains prostaglandins
– Stimulate uterine contractions that help to
transport the sperm up the female reproductive tract
Male Reproductive Tract
Sperm: The Route out of the Body
• The Prostate
– Produces an alkaline, nutrient‐rich secretion
– Comprises about 30% of the semen volume
– Fluid includes enzymes that increase the fluidity
of the semen once it has entered the vagina
– This permits the sperm to swim more freely
Male Reproductive Tract
Sperm: The Route out of the Body
• The Bulbourethral Glands
– Also called Cowper’s Glands
– Secretes the ‘pre‐ejaculate’
– Secretes alkaline mucus into the urethra,
neutralizing remaining traces of acidic urine
Male Reproductive Tract
Penis
• 3 cylindrical masses of erectile tissue
– Bound by the tunica albuginea
– Corpus cavernosum
• 2, run dorsally along the penis
– Corpus spongiosum
• Surrounds the urethra
•Well supplied with blood, since erection is a hydrodynamic
event
Hormonal Control of Reproduction
• Human reproduction is coordinated by
hormones from the hypothalamus, anterior
pituitary, and gonads
• Gonadotropin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) is
secreted by the hypothalamus and directs the
release of FSH and LH from the anterior
pituitary
• FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads
and the production of sex hormones
Hormonal Control of Reproduction
• Sex hormones serve many functions in
addition to gamete production, including
sexual behavior and the development of
primary and secondary sex characteristics
Hormonal Control of the Female
Reproductive Cycles
• In females, the secretion of hormones and the
reproductive events they regulate are cyclic
• Prior to ovulation, the endometrium thickens
with blood vessels in preparation for embryo
implantation
• If an embryo does not implant in the
endometrium, the endometrium is shed in a
process called menstruation
Hormonal Control of Reproduction
Hormones closely link the two cycles of female
reproduction
– Changes in the uterus define the menstrual cycle (also
called the uterine cycle)
– Changes in the ovaries define the ovarian cycle
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle
• The Ovarian cycle
– In the “typical” 28‐day menstrual cycle
– The beginning of menstruation is designated as
day 1, because this is easily observed, even
though the hormonal events that drive the cycle
actually begin a day or two earlier
1.The releases GnRH, which stimulates the anterior
pituitary to release FSH and LH
• At this time the endometrium of the uterus is still
being shed
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle
• The Ovarian cycle
2. FSH stimulates the development of several
follicles within each ovary
• The small follicle cells surrounding the oocyte secrete
a small amount of estrogen
•Because of FHS, LH and estrogen, the follicles
grow
• The primary oocytes enlarge, storing food and other
substances that will be used by the fertilized egg
during early development
• Usually, only one follicle completes development
each month
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle
• The Ovarian cycle
3.The maturing follicle secretes increasing amounts of estrogen, which has three effects:
•First, it promotes the continued development of
the follicle and of the primary oocyte within it
•Second, it stimulates the growth of the
endometrium
• Third, estrogen stimulates the hypothalamus to
release more GnRH
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle
• The Ovarian cycle
4. Increased GnRH stimulates a surge of LH at about
the 13th or 14th day of the cycle
•The increased LH has three important consequences:
– It triggers the resumption of meiosis I in the
oocyte, producing the secondary oocyte and the first polar body
5. Second, the LH surge causes ovulation
–Third, it transforms the remnants of the follicle
into the corpus luteum
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle
• The Ovarian cycle
6. The corpus luteum secretes both estrogen and
progesterone
• Stimulate the growth of the endometrium
7. Estrogen and progesterone inhibit GnRH
production
• Reducing the release of FSH and LH
• Preventing the development of more follicles
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle
• The Ovarian cycle
8. If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
starts to disintegrate about 12 days after
ovulation
• This occurs because the corpus luteum cannot survive
without stimulation by LH
•Because estrogen and progesterone secreted by the
corpus luteum shut down LH production, the corpus
luteum actually causes its own destruction
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle
• The Ovarian cycle
9. With the corpus luteum degenerated
• Estrogen and progesterone levels plummet
• most of the endometerium of the uterus disintegrates
• Its blood and tissue are shed, forming the
menstrual flow
•The reduced levels of estrogen and progesterone no longer inhibit the hypothalamus, so the
spontaneous release of GnRH resumes
• GnRH stimulates the release of FSH and LH,
•Initiating the development of a new set of
follicles and restarting the cycle
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle
• Uterine Cycle
– Controlled by developing follicles
– They secrete estrogen
– Stimulates the endometrium to become thicker
and grow an extensive network of blood vessels
and glands
– After ovulation, estrogen and progesterone
released by the corpus luteum further stimulate
the endometrium
•Thus, if an egg is fertilized, it encounters a
rich environment for growth
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle
• Uterine Cycle
– If the egg is not fertilized
– The corpus luteum disintegrates, estrogen and
progesterone levels fall
– The overgrown endometrium disintegrates as well
– The uterus then contracts (sometimes causing
menstrual cramps) and squeezes out the excess
endometrial tissue, which causes the flow of
tissue and blood called menstruation
Hormonal Control of Pregnancy
•The embryo prevents the negative feedback that
would otherwise end the menstrual cycle
• Once the zygote has implanted in endometrium it secretes chorionic gonadotropin (CG)
– CG keeps the corpus luteum alive
– Turning it into the corpus luteum of pregnancy
– Which continues to secrete estrogen and
progesterone for a few months
The hormones continue to stimulate the development of the endometrium, nourishing the embryo and
sustaining the pregnancy
•Some CG is excreted in the mother’s urine, where it can be detected to confirm pregnancy
Hormonal Control of the Male
Reproductive System
Regulation of Sperm Production
• Hormones from the anterior pituitary and
testes regulate spermatogenesis
– Spermatogenesis begins at puberty, when GnRH
from the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior
pituitary to produce LH and FSH
• LH stimulates the interstitial cells of the
testes to produce testosterone
• In combination with FSH, testosterone stimulates
the Sertoli cells and promotes spermatogenesis
Hormonal Control of the Male
Reproductive System
Regulation of Sperm Production
• Testicular function is regulated by negative
feedback
– Testosterone inhibits the release of GnRH, LH, and FSH
• Which limits further testosterone production and
sperm development
– The Sertoli cells, when stimulated by FSH and
testosterone, secrete a hormone called inhibin,
which inhibits FSH production by the anterior
pituitary
– This complex feedback process maintains relatively
constant levels of testosterone and sperm
production
Conception
Male Role
Begins with arousal and subsequent erection of the penis
• Before erection:
The penis is relaxed (flaccid), the smooth muscles surrounding
the arterioles that supply it are chronically
contracted
– Little blood flow
•Under psychological and physical stimulation, the nervous system
releases nitric oxide onto the muscles of the
arterioles
–Nitric oxide activates an enzyme that synthesizes
cyclic GMP
• An intracellular second messenger that causes
smooth muscles to relax
•Therefore, the arterioles dilate and blood flows into tissue spaces within the penis
Conception
Male Role
• With the arterioles open
• The tissues become engorged with blood
• This causes the veins to be squeezed shut
• Blood pressure increases, causing an erection
•During intercourse, movements stimulate the touch
receptors on the penis, triggering ejaculation
(usually at orgasm)
• Muscles encircling the epididymis, vas deferens,
and urethra contract, forcing semen out
– A typical ejaculation consists of about 2 to 5
milliliters of semen containing about 100 million
to 400 million sperm
Conception
Female Role
– Sexual arousal causes increased blood flow the
external genitalia and vagina
– Stimulation may result in orgasm
• All an orgasm is, is a series of rhythmic
contractions of the vagina and uterus accompanied \by intensely pleasurable sensations
– Female orgasm is not necessary for fertilization,
but the contractions of the vagina and uterus
probably help to move sperm up toward the uterine
tubes
Conception
During fertilization, the sperm and egg nuclei
unite
– Neither sperm nor egg lives very long on its own
• Sperm may live for 2 to 4 days inside the female
reproductive tract
•An unfertilized egg remains viable for a day or so •The sperm move through the cervix, into the
uterus,and the uterine tubes
•If copulation occurs within a day or two of
ovulation, the sperm may meet an egg in one of the uterine tubes
Conception
– The egg is surrounded by follicle cells
•Called the corona radiata, form a barrier between the sperm and the egg
• A second barrier, the jelly‐like zona pellucida (“clear area”), lies
between the corona radiata and the egg
– In the uterine tube, hundreds of sperm reach the
egg and encircle the corona radiata
– Each sperm releases enzymes from its acrosome
• Weaken corona radiata and the zona pellucida
• Allowing the sperm to wiggle through to the egg
•If there aren’t enough sperm, not enough enzyme is released, and none of the sperm will reach the egg
This may be the reason that natural selection had led to the ejaculation of so many sperm
Conception
– The first sperm contacts the eggs surface:
• The plasma membranes fuse
• The sperm’s head is drawn into the cytoplasm
– This triggers two critical changes:
•Vesicles near the surface of the egg release
chemicals into the zona pellucida
•This reinforces it and prevents further sperm from entering
• The ova undergoes meiosis II
•This allows for fertilization, i.e. the haploid
nuclei of sperm and egg fuse, forming a diploid
nucleus
Conception
• Conception, fertilization of an egg by a sperm,
occurs in the oviduct
• The resulting zygote begins to divide by
mitosis in a process called cleavage
• Division of cells gives rise to a blastocyst, a
ball of cells with a central cavity
Conception
• After blastocyst formation, the embryo implants
into the endometrium
• The embryo releases human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG), which prevents
menstruation
• Pregnancy, or gestation, is the condition of
carrying one or more embryos in the uterus
•Duration of pregnancy in other species correlates
with body size and maturity of the young at birth
Human Embryonic Development
First Trimester
• Human gestation can be divided into three
trimesters of about three months each
• The first trimester is the time of most radical
change for both the mother and the embryo
• During implantation, the endometrium grows
over the blastocyst
Human Embryonic Development
First Trimester
•During its first 2 to 4 weeks, the embryo obtains
nutrients directly from the endometrium
• Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst,
called the trophoblast, mingles with the
endometrium and eventually forms the placenta
• Blood from the embryo travels to the placenta
through arteries of the umbilical cord and returns
via the umbilical vein
Human Embryonic Development
First Trimester
•Splitting of the embryo during the first month of
development results in genetically identical twins
• Release and fertilization of two eggs results in
fraternal and genetically distinct twins
• The first trimester is the main period of
organogenesis, development of the body organs
• All the major structures are present by 8 weeks,
and the embryo is called a fetus
Human Embryonic Development
First Trimester
• Changes occur in the mother
– Mucus plug to protect against infection
– Growth of the placenta and uterus
– Cessation of ovulation and the menstrual cycle
– Breast enlargement
– Nausea is also very common
Human Embryonic Development
Second Trimester
• During the second trimester
– The fetus grows and is very active
– The mother may feel fetal movements
– The uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to
become obvious
Human Embryonic Development
Third Trimester
• During the third trimester, the fetus grows and
fills the space within the embryonic
membranes
• A complex interplay of local regulators and
hormones induces and regulates labor, the
process by which childbirth occurs
Human Embryonic Development
Third Trimester
• Labor typically has three stages
– Thinning and opening of the cervix, or dilation
– Expulsion or delivery of the baby
– Delivery of the placenta
•Delivery of the baby and placenta are brought
about by a series of strong, rhythmic uterine
contractions
•Lactation, the production of milk, is unique to mammals