cell type

most general characteristics

most specific or unique characteristics

the scientific study of fungi

eukaryotic
nonphotosynthetic
unicellular or multicellular
asexual or sexual reproduction
not organized into tissues or organs
most are saprophytes
chitin cell wall

yeast, molds, mushrooms, puffballs, bracket, chytrid molds

single-celled micrscopic fungi
used to manufacture drugs and fermented products such as alcohol

-mycota

-mycetes

zygomycota
zygomycetes
deuteromycota

causes zygomycosis
is an opportunistic infection caused by species of molds like rhizopus

fungal infection of the pulmonary, gastrointestinal, or cutaneous system
patients are normally immune-compromised to begin with

fungi imperfecti (most sexual phases have not been discovered)
contains most of the medically important fungi in this phylum
asexual vegetative fungal spore (susceptible to drying and chemicals)

dimorphic - depending on the temp. it can be found as a mold on the skin or a spherule inside the body
endemic in California (Valley Fever - 400 cases a year)
causes pneumonia (inside body) & disseminated cutaneous mycosis (on skin)

skin loving fungi

fungal infection

cutaneous mycoses

fungal skin infection

cutaneous mycosis
(medical term! not scientific name)

athletes foot

there is a lesion on the hand

take a skin scraping to look for fungal element & add 40% KOH to break down the keratin and reveal fungal elements

jock itch

barber's itch, beard fungal infection

ringworm of the body
starts as a red spot but has an emerging margin because the mold grows in the center and the hyphae extend out triggering an inflammation response

ringworm of the scalp

trichophyton
microsporum
epidermophyton

used to find molds in the skin and hair
is a diagnostic UV light
the hyphae growing seem to "glow" in the dark

biological poison

produces aflatoxin, grows on peanuts or corn, & produces potent carcinogens

cancer causing agents

reproduce by budding
usually in a tiny % of normal flora

causes oral mycoses (aka thrush) & primary cause of vaginitis due to fungi

a green algae that looks red ("watermelon snow")
psychrophillic - extreme cold loving
photoflagellate
has a secondary red carotenoid pigment (astaxanthin) in addition to chlorophyll (green)
microscopic

uses sunlight for energy & moves using a flagella

shape, size & color

secondary red carotenoid pigment for chlamydomonas nivalis

Gonyaulax tamarensis & pfiesteria piscicida
single celled organisms that live in silica and calcium based material

red photosynthetic pigments

live in marine habitats
cause of red tide
marine neurotoxin

will affect any filter feeders
will concentrate in the flesh of the clams or oysters
testing shellfish for red tide

causes parasitic lesions in the fish

plant-like macroscopic appearance
red algae
usually marine habitats
phycoerythrins used as a photosynthetic pigments

commercially used red algae
used as a source of carregeenin
used in dairy products and agar used in bacteriology

a source of agar in new zealand

replication
transcription
translation

initiation
elongation
& termination

in chromosomes

one chromosome in a circle
extrachromosomal DNA is in a plasmid

a linear chromosome
extrachromosomal DNA in mitochondria and ribosomes

DNA dependent DNA synthesis

DNA dependent RNA synthesis

nitrogen

A & G (stop sign and a house)

T & C (stop sign)

hydrogen bonds

A & T

G & C

A, G, C, & U
substitute uracil for thymine

can add three phosphate groups
has no oxygen on sugar

goes from 3' to 5'
makes the sugar phosphate backbone and gives strength to the DNA
linkage between sugars & phosphate

the hydroxyl group

phosphate groups

semiconservative
has an antiparallel construction

ladder is pulled apart & new nucleotides come in

Matthew Meselson & Franklin Stahl in 1958

1/2 is 3' to 5' & other 1/2 is 5' to 3'

enzymes responsible for supercoiling

enzyme responsible for flattening out the helix

enzyme responsible for replication

located on the leading strand; one direction & a nice long strand

located on the lagging strand

responsible for adding an RNA primer (aids DNA polymerase III)

repairs DNA; alot in cell. looks for errors takes out RNA & replaces with DNA
establishes the replication fork

responsible for forming phosphodiester bonds

origin of replication

before replicator there are fragments called

making an RNA message from DNA

making proteins from the message

replication, transcription, & translation occur in cytoplasm

initiation, elongation, & termination

RNA polymerase finds "recognition sites" on DNA

makes the RNA polymere

RNA polymerase polmerizes RNA copies

A "stop site" is recognized

mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, & catalytic RNA

working blue print

building block used in protein synthesis factories (ribosomes)

transports RNA brings monomers for protein synthesis from cytoplasm to ribosome

translation

universal (almost)
punctuation
degeneracy
wobble

there is a start and stop

multiple codons for the same amino acids

for a group of codons some errors can occur & not mess up the protein

aka protein synthesis

transfers amino acids to ribosome

at 3'

triplet of complementary nucleotides; form hydrogen bonds & match up with 3 other codons

start

stop

stop

stop

located on messenger RNA
lines up with anticodon

Met.

FMet.

initiation complex

tRNAs bring amino acid building blocks to the mRNA/ribosome site where peptide bonds are formed

stop site is recognized

produces a full protein with one nucleic acid changing the entire amino acid

the enzyme responsible for adding AA to tRNAs

change in one nucleotide - an A instead of a C

insertion or deletion of nucleotides ; shifts the entire reading frame

change in one nucleotide & will have full length proteins but will have different proteins & a different function

changing in one nucleotide on DNA or RNA that results in placing a premature stop codon producing an incomplete protein

change in the genes

biochemical make-up & produces physical characteristics

change in one nucleotide that results in a change in a codon that is for the same amino acid as in the original message so the same protein is made

x-rays & gamma rays

ultraviolet light

exchange of genetic material & creates diversity

naked DNA is transferred through the environment and taken up by the recipient cell & then incorporated
uptake of "naked" DNA

through a bacterial virus genetic material is transferred ; a mid range of DNA transferred
transfer by temperate bacteriophage

largest amount of DNA is transferred; chromosomal & plasmids are transferred; donor & recipient cells are connected by a bridge (pili)

1928
DNA transferred by transformation

way of delivering the pay load (DNA)

high frequency recombinant F' cells

can be used to transfer genetic material in plants

double stranded DNA from 2 different sources that get spliced together

contains Ti plasmid

antibiotic resistance

introducing new genetic material (nucleic acid) of a virus into a mammalian cell

looking at how much (percentage) of nucleotides in an organisms cell

insulin production
hemoglobin
growth hormone
interferon
albumin
oil degraders
alcohol producers
pesticide control
vaccines
frost resistance

heat to denature & 2 complementary sides are reanneal regardless of the source
2 pieces of single stranded DNA from 2 different organisms combine to make a new DNA

complementary DNA (copies) of DNA from plasmids to carry or transfer DNA

form a staggered cut & want to stick back to (reanneal) single stranded DNA tail

facilitate cleavage of phospodiester bond; will do it on both sides of the DNA; but is looking for a specific sequence

a tiny piece of single stranded DNA that has the same complementary nucleotides as what is being looked for & it is tagged

small ssDNA with tagged reporter gene

find a unique gene

streak DNA to form colones => transfer colonies to a plastic membrane => soak membrane in an alkaline solution => you then have lysed cells with naked DNA => probe is then added => membrane is washed & tag is looked for

radioisotopes
chemiluminescent or
colorimetric

long half lives & have dangerous disposal & dangers for workers using it

glows in the dark

look for a color change

normal intact functional lac z' protein

have recombinant DNA & nonfunctional lac z' proteins

technique that separates biological material by masses & sizes onto a gel

forensics
crime solving
hair
skin
semen
saliva

pure agar

very fragil
electric field separate DNA fragments by size in an agars gel matrix

DNA transfer from gel to nylon or nitrocellulose pieces of membrane

Restriction fragment length polymorphism
"restriction nucleases used and many shapes produced"

first lab to come out with a gel electrophoresis method

medicine
sickle cell anemia
cystic fibrosis
paternity issues

separates RNA in an electrical field by gel electrophoresis in agarose, stained with ethydium bromide & then onto a membrane & stains it

proteins transfer, poly acrylamide separation (PAGE) of proteins separated in an electrical field by gel electrophoresis in agarose, stained with ethydium bromide, & then are separated onto a membrane

diagnose lyme disease & HIV

Finds DNA binding proteins (DNBP)
technique used to isolate fragments of DNA containing genes or segments of genes. DNA fragments are seperated by an electrical field by gel electrophoresis in agarose. stained with ethydium bromide fragments are then transferred from the gel to nitrocellulose or nylon

example of DNA binding protein

multiple copies of the same small sample of DNA are produced
the procedure by which billions of copies of a sequence of DNA can be made in a few hours

a molecular microscope slide with 100's of samples form DNA & they use the DNA probe to find where diseases originate & look for distinct differences from person to person

medicine made for an individual

RNA primer
Nucleotides
TAQ DNA polymerase

all enzymes are heat tolerant so often used in PCR

genotypes (phenotypes) of over 99% of the world's population
& is around 3.5 billion years old

using an organism to produce a commercial or industrial product

beer & bread

artificially manipulating the genetic make-up of an organism

in an organism

in the labratory

double stranded DNA made from 2 different sources or species

term used to describe a collection of different DNA fragments

identical copies of organisms or cells

use of genetically engineered organisms to reclaim garbage or oil spills

heating DNA to separate double stranded DNA into single stranded DNA ;
phosphodiester are not broken

short segments of single stranded DNA which have been labeled that recognizes or binds to the DNA sequence of a gene from another source

gene that has been tagged with a radioisotope usually by a DNA probe

complementary binding of two sources of ssDNA to form one piece of double stranded DNA - complete, incomplete, or partial

enzyme used to nick dsDNA and make sticky ends

copies of DNA made from the mRNA derived from the specific cells producing the desired gene product needed - rHGH, rInsulin

A VERY IMPORTANT enzyme used to produce cDNA from mRNA

animals which have been genetically engineered in vitro to have specific genes from a different species

one of the most common vectors used in genetic engineering

the most elegant way of introducing recombinant DNA into a plant cell

vectors that are more commonly used in human gene therapy

the DNA fingerprint. DNA is cut with restriction endonucleases producing different sized fragments. the different sized fragments are separated by electrophoresis generally DNA from some people will produce different mixtures of fragments. used in criminal investigations & paternity testing

physically (stuff in it)
chemically
biologically (massive growth of algae)

a greater than normal microbial load

viruses are the most common cause
diarrheal diseases occur world wide

rare

waterborne pathogens

water that is considered safe enough to drink but is not completely sterile but it is expected to have no pathogens and levels must be low enough to not be considered a health concern

gram-negative rods that are lactose users & are found coming from mammalian digestive tracts

E. coli

salmonella & shingella
these are gram-negative bacteria but are lactose negative

fecal contamination & an increased likelihood that disease-causing agents are present

1. sediment
2. flocculation
3. filtration
4. disinfection

take out solids

add an agent to make the little particles settle

uses sand, activated charcoal, or membrane to filter water

chlorine gas, ozone, or UV light are used to clean the water