A&P 2402 Exam 4 Flashcards

B. two-thirds of the total fluid is within our cells and one-third is outside our cells

A. more potassium and more negatively charged proteins

B. low

A. Infancy

B. extracellular fluid

D. two-thirds

D. less, extracellular

is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity.

C. milliequivalents per liter

Maintaining fluid balance involves the interaction of many systems of the body

Includes ingested (performed) water in our food and drink and metabolic water that is produced within the body

Includes losses when we expire air and losses, through our skin, feces, and urine.

A. sensible, obligatory

is the amount of body fluid lost daily that is not easily measured, from the respiratory system, skin, and water in the excreted stool.

Loss of water that always occurs, regardless of the state of hydration in the body

B. hypothalamus

A. on

B. is controlled by hormone effects on the kidney

C. decreases in salivary secretions and increases in blood osmolarity

C. decrease

D. low blood pressure or decreased NaCl in the fluid within the distal convoluted tubule

C. increased numbers of Na+/ K+ pumps

D. angiotensin II and decreased blood plasma sodium levels

D. dilation, relaxation

B. increased stretch of the heart arteries

A. electrolyte

C. decrease, stimulating

B. urine

C. Increased plasma sodium levels increase water retention, blood volume, and blood pressure.

C. pumps that move calcium out of cells or into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Can be classified as fixed or volatile.

Donates electrons, accepts protons, or releases hydroxide (OH-) ions in aqueous solution.

a chemical system that prevents a radical change in fluid pH by dampening the change in hydrogen ion concentrations in the case of excess acid or base.

B. H2CO3 is a weak acid, and HCO3- is a weak base

This system uses creatine phosphate (CP) and has a very rapid rate of ATP production.

helps to maintain acidity in and around the cells. Haemoglobin makes an excellent buffer by binding to small amounts of acids in the blood, before they can alter the pH of the blood.

The pH of body fluids may be adjusted by a change in the rate and depth of respirations, and usually takes 1 to 3 minutes to effect a change.

An increase in the rate and depth of breathing causes more carbon dioxide to be exhaled, thereby INCREASING the pH (more alkaline).

A decrease in respiration rate and depth means that less carbon dioxide is exhaled, causing the blood pH to fall (more acid).

So, the pH of body fluids affects the rate of breathing.

The kidneys excrete H+ and reabsorb HCO3- to aid in maintaining pH.

Help prevent pH changes within fractions of a second and include proteins, the phosphate system, and the bicarbonate system until the kidney or respiratory system can alter the blood pH through physiologic mechanisms

B. kidneys

C. respiratory acidosis

A. metabolic acidosis

C. carbon dioxide rises

B. alkalosis

D. metabolic alkalosis

B. respiratory alkalosis

The process of taking food, drink, or another substance into the body by swallowing or absorbing it.

Refers to the movement of food from the mouth through the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines and out of the body.

Micturition

D. oral cavity

B. b,d,c,a,f,e

E. Duodenum - jejunum - ileum

VII and IX

Physically breaking the food into smaller pieces

Involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells

The act of taking up or in by specific chemical or molecular action; especially the passage of liquids or other substances through a surface of the body into body fluids and tissues.

The food molecules that cannot be digested or absorbed need to be eliminated from the body. The removal of indigestible wastes through the anus, in the form of feces, is defecation or elimination.

E. Pharynx

Simple columnar epithelium

E. Liver

The innermost layer, and functions in absorption and secretion. It is composed of epithelium cells and a thin connective tissue. The mucosa contains specialized goblet cells that secrete sticky mucus throughout the GI tract.

The layer of dense, irregular connective tissue or loose connective tissue that supports the mucosa, as well as joins the mucosa to the bulk of underlying smooth muscle.

Involved with local conditions and controls local secretion, absorption, and muscle movements.

Consists of an inner circular muscular layer and a longitudinal outer muscular layer. The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis, which propels the food through the GI tract.

The major nerve supply to the gastrointestinal tract and controls GI tract motility.

A membrane that lines an internal cavity to protect the contents and secretes serum.

C. back-and-forth motion that mixes chyme with glandular secretions

D. is the alternating contraction of muscle layers in the GI tract wall that propels materials through the tract

B. Parietal peritoneum, peritoneal cavity, visceral peritoneum

The inner layer, is wrapped around the internal organs that are located inside the intraperitoneal cavity.

The portion that lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities. Those cavities are also known as the peritoneal cavity.

E. Intraperitoneal ligament

The larger of the two peritoneal folds. It consists of a double sheet of peritoneum, folded on itself so that it has four layers. The two layers of the greater omentum descend from the greater curvature of the stomach and the beginning of the duodenum.

Specialized stretch receptors located within thin areas of blood vessels and heart chambers that respond to the degree of stretch caused by the presence of blood. They send impulses to the cardiovascular center to regulate blood pressure.

C. chemoreceptors

Serves as integrating centres between the CNS and ENS for regulation of intestinal motility, blood flow, and secretion.

Supplied by the vagus and pelvic nerves. The vagus innervates the upper GI tract, and the pelvic nerve innervates the lower GI tract. Parasympathetic neurons have long preganglionic fibers that synapse in ganglia in or near the target organs.

Hormones control the different digestive enzymes that are secreted in the stomach and the intestine during the process of digestion and absorption. For example, the hormone gastrin stimulates stomach acid secretion in response to food intake. The hormone somatostatin stops the release of stomach acid.

Beginning of the digestive tract

B. Nonkeratinized stratified squamous

Two fleshy folds that surround the mouth, are composed externally of skin and internally of mucous membrane, or mucosa. The mucosa is rich in mucus-secreting glands, which together with saliva ensure adequate lubrication for the purposes of speech and mastication.

Pushing the food around while you chew with your teeth. When you're ready to swallow, the tongue pushes a tiny bit of mushed-up food called a bolus toward the back of your throat and into the opening of your esophagus, the second part of the digestive tract.

The fold of mucous membrane that binds each lip to the gums

They help manipulate the food and may also have taste buds on their lateral surfaces

Located at the base of the tongue above the valleculae, which are air-filled pouches between the tongue base and the free margin of the epiglottis.

D. Palatine bones and maxillae

Composed of muscle and connective tissue, which give it both mobility and support. This palate is very flexible. When elevated for swallowing and sucking, it completely blocks and separates the nasal cavity and nasal portion of the pharynx.

Helps prevent fluids from passing upward into the nasal cavity.

C. Hard palate

D. effectors

Contains special enzymes that help digest the starches in your food. An enzyme called amylase breaks down starches (complex carbohydrates) into sugars, which your body can more easily absorb. Saliva also contains an enzyme called lingual lipase, which breaks down fats.

Specialized to secrete an enzyme solution

Line the surface of the stomach

C. amylase

Account for up to 20% of the saliva in our oral cavity. Their main role lies in facilitating mastication, or “chewing,” and in commencing the first digestive phase of our food.

B. submandibular

Mastication

Lie directly under the mucous membrane covering the floor of the mouth beneath the tongue

B. milk, 20

C. The central portion of a tooth is the sinus cavity

The permanent teeth

Teeth that do the tearing and biting. Four top and four bottom teeth.

B. are lateral to the incisors, used for puncturing and tearing

Tooth with two cusps (premolar tooth)

They have a large, flat surface with ridges that allow them to chew food and grind it up. Adults have 12 permanent molars.

Extends into the bone and holds the tooth in place. It makes up approximately two-thirds of the tooth.

The visible, outermost covering of your teeth

Layer of material that lies immediately underneath the enamel of the tooth.

canals inside a tooth's root.

A specialized calcified substance covering the root of a tooth.

The connective tissue that surrounds the tooth (specifically covering the cementum) and connects the tooth to the jawbone, holding it in place.

The superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle is a muscle in the pharynx. It is the highest located muscle of the three pharyngeal constrictors. The muscle is a quadrilateral muscle, thinner and paler than the inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle and middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle.

Action or process of swallowing

During the oral phase, food is chewed and mixed with saliva to form a soft consistency called a bolus. The tongue then moves the bolus toward the back of the mouth.

The preparatory/oral phase is voluntary, whereas the pharyngeal and esophageal phases are mediated by an involuntary reflex called the swallowing reflex. The neuromuscular structure and control of the oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal phases of swallowing are different.

A small rounded mass of a substance, especially of chewed food at the moment of swallowing.

D. contains both smooth and skeletal muscle fibers.

The opening in the diaphragm through which the esophagus passes from the thoracic to abdominal cavity.

A bundle of muscles at the low end of the esophagus, where it meets the stomach. When the LES is closed, it prevents acid and stomach contents from traveling backwards from the stomach.

A muscular organ located on the left side of the upper abdomen. The stomach receives food from the esophagus. As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it enters the stomach through a muscular valve called the lower esophageal sphincter. The stomach secretes acid and enzymes that digest food.

The middle layer is composed of circular and oblique fibres; the former, which are the more numerous, are found in the form of rings surrounding the stomach from the sphincter pylori, which they form, to the cardia.

A series of ridges produced by folding of the wall.

The pylorus is the part of the stomach that connects to the small intestine. This region includes the pyloric sphincter, which is a thick ring of muscle that acts as a valve to control the emptying of stomach contents (chyme) into the duodenum (first part of the small intestine). The pyloric sphincter also prevents the contents of the duodenum from going back into the stomach.

The antrum is the lower part of the stomach. The antrum holds the broken-down food until it is ready to be released into the small intestine. It is sometimes called the pyloric antrum.

The body is the largest and main part of the stomach. This is where food is mixed and starts to break down.

The fundus is the rounded area that lies to the left of the cardia and below the diaphragm.

The cardia is the first part of the stomach below the esophagus. It contains the cardiac sphincter, which is a thin ring of muscle that helps to prevent stomach contents from going back up into the esophagus.

D. passage of chyme into the duodenum

Is stimulated by the act of eating (cephalic phase) and the arrival of food in the stomach (gastric phase). Arrival of the food in the intestine also controls gastric secretion (intestinal phase). The secreted fluid contains hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, bicarbonate, and mucus.

Indentations in the stomach which denote entrances to the tubular shaped gastric glands. The human stomach has several million of these.

Are responsible for the synthesis and secretion of the gastric juice. The lining epithelium of the stomach, and gastric pits is entirely made up of mucous columnar cells. These cells produce a thick coating of mucus, that protects the gastric mucosa from acid and enzymes in the lumen.

Mucus-producing cells which cover the inside of the stomach, protecting it from the corrosive nature of gastric acid.

Are inconspicuous epithelial cells with a typical mucous-secretory appearance. These cells are most common in the upper ("neck") region of the fundic glands

A. Chief cells

B. Periatel cells

A bolus, chyme

A thin, clear, virtually colorless acidic fluid secreted by the stomach glands and active in promoting digestion.

B. inactive precursor to the enzyme pepsin that digests proteins in the stomach.

B. low

D. pepsin

The water-based, or aqueous, solution of hydrogen chloride gas. It is also the main component of gastric acid, an acid produced naturally in the human stomach to help digest food.

An acidic lipase secreted by the gastric chief cells in the fundic mucosa in the stomach. It has a pH optimum of 3–6. Gastric lipase, together with lingual lipase, comprise the two acidic lipases.

A substance secreted by the stomach which enables the body to absorb vitamin B₁₂. It is a glycoprotein.

B. Gastrin

B. small intestine

D. hormone, small intestine

B. gastrin in the gastric phase of digestion

B. Cephalic

The pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.

C. increase surface area in the small intestine

Microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area for diffusion and minimize any increase in volume, and are involved in a wide variety of functions, including absorption, secretion, cellular adhesion, and mechanotransduction.

B. absorb the products of fat digestion

Large valvular flaps projecting into the lumen of the small intestine.

Gland found in between villi in the intestinal epithelium lining of the small intestine and large intestine (or colon).

A type of intestinal mucosal epithelial cell, which serves as the primary site for nutrient digestion and mucosal absorption. The primary function of goblet cells is to synthesize and secrete mucus.

C. Round lobe

Essential for digesting food and ridding your body of toxic substances.

A blood vessel that carries blood from the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen to the liver. This blood contains nutrients and toxins extracted from digested contents.

A building block of the liver tissue, consisting of a portal triad, hepatocytes arranged in linear cords between a capillary network, and a central vein. Lobules are different from the lobes of the liver: they are the smaller divisions of the lobes.

Pericytes found in the perisinusoidal space of the liver, also known as the space of Disse (a small area between the sinusoids and hepatocytes).

C. vein

D. Mixed arterial and venous blood

A group of cells having the ability to take up and sequester inert particles and vital dyes including macrophages and macrophage precursors, specialized endothelial cells lining the sinusoids of the liver, spleen, and bone marrow, and reticular cells of lymphatic tissue (macrophages)

B. between cords of hepatocytes

A series of thin tubes that go from the liver to the small intestine. Their major job is to move a fluid called bile from the liver and gallbladder into the small intestine, where it helps digest the fats in food.

A duct that carries bile from the liver into the common bile duct which conveys it to the duodenum (the upper part of the small intestine).

To process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat and some vitamins.

A bitter greenish-brown alkaline fluid that aids digestion and is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.

A. amphipathic

A small pouch that sits just under the liver. The gallbladder stores bile produced by the liver. After meals, the gallbladder is empty and flat, like a deflated balloon. Before a meal, the gallbladder may be full of bile and about the size of a small pear.

D. Cystic duct

Stimulates the gallbladder to contract and release stored bile into the intestine. It also stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice and may induce satiety.

A tube that carries bile from the liver and the gallbladder through the pancreas and into the duodenum (the upper part of the small intestine). It is formed where the ducts from the liver and gallbladder are joined. It is part of the biliary duct system.

The gastrointestinal hormones secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), sulfated gastrin, and glucagon increase bile volume and inorganic ion excretion into bile, but none of them influence bile salt secretion.

The breakdown of fat globules in the duodenum into tiny droplets, which provides a larger surface area on which the enzyme pancreatic lipase can act to digest the fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Emulsification is assisted by the action of the bile salts.

Makes pancreatic juices called enzymes. These enzymes break down sugars, fats, and starches. Your pancreas also helps your digestive system by making hormones. These are chemical messengers that travel through your blood.

The exocrine cells of the pancreas that produce and transport enzymes that are passed into the duodenum where they assist in the digestion of food. Islets of Langerhans.

Is a duct joining the pancreas to the common bile duct to supply pancreatic juice provided from the exocrine pancreas, which aids in digestion.

Starch

B. Glucose is a monosaccharide, sucrose is a disaccharide, both molecules are carbohydrates.

A. the transport of bile and pancreatic juice.

Is a muscular valve that in some animals, including humans, controls the flow of digestive juices (bile and pancreatic juice) through the ampulla of Vater into the second part of the duodenum.

A. stimulates

Released through the pancreatic duct into the first part of the small intestine, where it helps break down dietary carbohydrates. Amylase is usually present in the blood and urine in small quantities. When cells in the pancreas are injured, increased amounts of amylase are released into the blood.

Secreted by pancreatic acinar cells, complete fat digestion in the proximal small intestine. Of the known pancreatic lipases, pancreatic triglyceride lipase (PTL), the archetype of the lipase family, is clearly essential for the efficient digestion of dietary triglycerides.

Digest dietary proteins to allow absorption of amino acids. Other processes mediated by proteases include blood coagulation, immune function, maturation of prohormones, bone formation, programmed cell death and the recycling of cellular proteins that are no longer needed.

Digestive enzymes that break nucleic acids like DNA and RNA into nucleotides, which are the building blocks of the nucleic acids. When these nucleotides reach the ileum -- the last section of the small intestine -- they are further digested into sugars, bases and phosphates.

CCK stimulates pancreatic secretion through hormonal and neuronal pathways. CCK is released from I cells of the small intestine and diffuses into the blood stream where it is carried to the pancreas. CCK binds to receptors on acinar cells to stimulate pancreatic enzyme secretion.

It acts as a buffer to break down and dilute the acidic content and increases the pH of the chyme.

Largely regulated through local reflexes which sense irritation due to the presence of chyme within the intestine.

Refers to the movement of nutrients, water and electrolytes from the lumen of the small intestine into the cell, then into the blood. In this article, we will look at the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, protein and lipids.

A. Large intestine

The colon consists of four parts: descending colon, ascending colon, transverse colon, and sigmoid colon.

Pouch within the peritoneum that is considered to be the beginning of the large intestine. It is typically located on the right side of the body (the same side of the body as the appendix, to which it is joined).

Helps in the proper movement and removal of waste matter in the digestive system, contains lymphatic vessels that regulate pathogens, and lastly, might even produce early defences that prevent deadly diseases.

A chamber that begins at the end of the large intestine, immediately following the sigmoid colon, and ends at the anus

Is the terminal segment of the large intestine, between the rectum and anus, located below the level of the pelvic diaphragm. It is located within the anal triangle of the perineum, between the right and left ischioanal fossa.

The opening at the end of the alimentary canal through which solid waste matter leaves the body.

A thickened extension of the circular smooth muscle layer surrounding the colon and is generally considered responsible for maintaining approximately 70% of resting tone, ensuring that the anal canal is closed at rest.

Composed of skeletal muscle that functions like other postural muscles in the body. It is a voluntary muscle that responds to volitional commands to contract and maintain continence when feces are propelled through a relaxed internal anal sphincter into the rectum.

Contracts length wise to produce the haustra, the bulges in the colon. The bands converge at the root of the vermiform appendix and the rectum. These bands correspond to the outer layer of the muscularis externa, in other portions of the digestive tract.

Refer to the small segmented pouches of bowel separated by the haustral folds. They are formed by circumferential contraction of the inner muscular layer of the colon. The outer longitudinal muscular layer is organized into three bands (taeniae coli) which run from the cecum to the rectum.

C. Water and electrolyte absorption

B. Indigenous microbiota

A. Large intestine

Waste matter discharged from the bowels after food has been digested; excrement

Occurs when the internal anal sphincter relaxes and the external anal sphincter contracts. The rectoanal inhibitory reflex (RAIR) is an involuntary internal anal sphincter relaxation in response to rectal distention. After the defecation reflex is triggered, you can either delay or defecate.

C. c,d

A. stomach

A substance that is normally produced in the pancreas and released into the small intestine. Trypsinogen is converted to trypsin. Then it starts the process needed to break down proteins into their building blocks (called amino acids).

Is an enzyme that helps us digest protein. In the small intestine, trypsin breaks down proteins, continuing the process of digestion that began in the stomach. It may also be referred to as a proteolytic enzyme, or proteinase. Trypsin is produced by the pancreas in an inactive form called trypsinogen.

A digestive enzyme which breaks down proteins in the small intestine. It is secreted by the pancreas and converted into an active form by trypsin.

C. peptides within the small intestine

Used to describe any enzyme that is capable of catalyzing the hydrolysis of a protein substrate and breaking it down into smaller polypeptides or amino acids. These proteins are also often referred to as protease or proteinase. Peptidases are a key component of a number of common biological functions.

Aids in the breakdown of sucrose (table sugar) into glucose and fructose, which are used by the body as fuel.

An enzyme, present in saliva and pancreatic juice, that catalyzes the breakdown of maltose and similar sugars to form glucose.

B. disaccharide, lactase

In the stomach, gastric lipase starts to break down triglycerides into diglycerides and fatty acids. Within two to four hours after eating a meal, roughly 30 percent of the triglycerides are converted to diglycerides and fatty acids.

A pancreatic enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of fats to fatty acids and glycerol or other alcohols.

Involves hydrolysis of dietary fat in the lumen of the intestine followed by the uptake of hydrolyzed products by enterocytes. Lipids are re-synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and are either secreted with chylomicrons and high density lipoproteins or stored as cytoplasmic lipid droplets.

Known as ultra low-density lipoproteins (ULDL), are lipoprotein particles that consist of triglycerides (85–92%), phospholipids (6–12%), cholesterol (1–3%), and proteins (1–2%).

C. small intestine

The study of nutrients in food, how the body uses them, and the relationship between diet, health, and disease.

A substance that provides nourishment essential for growth and the maintenance of life.

Your body needs these nutrients in larger amounts in order to function properly as macro means large. In addition, all of these nutrients provide your body with energy measured in the form of calories or kcals. There are three types of macronutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

They include vitamins and minerals. Vitamins are necessary for energy production, immune function, blood clotting and other functions. Meanwhile, minerals play an important role in growth, bone health, fluid balance and several other processes.

B. National Academy of Sciences

B. averages obtained from population studies

A unit of energy defined as the amount of heat needed to raise a quantity of water by one degree of temperature.

The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.

The six essential nutrients are vitamins, minerals, protein, fats, water, and carbohydrates.

can be synthesized by the human body, so they need not be obtained directly from food. Macronutrients are nutrients that are needed in relatively large amounts. They include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and water. All macronutrients except water provide energy, which is measured in Calories.

Disaccharides, milk, cellulose

Places a large metabolic load on the body. When the body constantly has high levels of blood sugars (the end point of food sugar and starch) to deal with over time, this leads to weight gain, poor metabolic health and an increased risk of heart disease.

Your body can store extra carbohydrates in your muscles and liver for use when you're not getting enough carbohydrates in your diet. A carbohydrate-deficient diet may cause headaches, fatigue, weakness, difficulty concentrating, nausea, constipation, bad breath and vitamin and mineral deficiencies.

Bread, beans, milk, popcorn, potatoe, cookies, spaghetti, soft drinks, corn, and cherry pie. They also come in a variety of forms.

Begins when the cell or organism detects carbohydrate levels, includes the activation of genes whose products detect, transport or metabolize carbohydrates, and ends when the carbohydrate is incorporated into the cell or organism's metabolism.

Mono- one sugar unit

Di- two sugar units

Poly- multiple sugar units

A substance deposited in bodily tissues as a store of carbohydrates. It is a polysaccharide which forms glucose on hydrolysis.

A. increase glycogenesis

B. converted to acetyl CoA that is then used to synthesize triglycerides for storage

C. is oxidized to two pyruvate molecules

Triglycerides and steroids

C. triglycerides

Are saturated with hydrogen molecules and contain only single bonds between carbon molecules.

Typically comes from plant sources such as olives, nuts, or seeds – but unsaturated fat is also present in fish. Unsaturated fat are usually called oils. Unlike saturated fat, these oils contain mostly monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat.

A waxy, fat-like substance that's found in all the cells in your body. Your body needs some cholesterol to make hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help you digest foods. Your body makes all the cholesterol it needs.

Can cause fat deposits in your artery walls, increasing your risk for heart disease.

May not have enough enzymes to break down lipids.

Triacylglycerols (also known as triglycerides) make up more than 95 percent of lipids in the diet and are commonly found in fried foods, vegetable oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, cream cheese, and some meats. Naturally occurring triacylglycerols are found in many foods, including avocados, olives, corn, and nuts.

The synthesis and degradation of lipids in cells, involving the breakdown or storage of fats for energy and the synthesis of structural and functional lipids, such as those involved in the construction of cell membranes. ... Other types of lipids found in the body are fatty acids and membrane lipids.

A colorless, sweet, viscous liquid formed as a byproduct in soap manufacture. It is used as an emollient and laxative, and for making explosives and antifreeze.

B. enters the citric acid cycle

Only two fatty acids are known to be essential for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).

B. peripheral tissues to the liver

B. LDLs are engulfed through receptor-mediated endocytosis

A. most

B. breakdown of fatty acids into two-carbon units to form acetyl CoA

is composed of amino acids, which are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, and proteins are the building blocks of muscle mass.

Consumed is usually stored as fat, while the surplus of amino acids is excreted. This can lead to weight gain over time, especially if you consume too many calories while trying to increase your protein intake.

Too little protein may cause changes in body composition that develop over a long period of time, such as muscle wasting. The most severe form of protein deficiency is known as kwashiorkor. It most often occurs in children in developing countries where famine and imbalanced diets are common.

Lean meats, poultry, fish and seafood, eggs, and dairy products

Is the ratio of amino acid mass converted to proteins to the mass of amino acids supplied. This figure is somewhat affected by the salvage of essential amino acids within the body, but is profoundly affected by the level of limiting amino acids within a foodstuff.

Are organic compounds that combine to form proteins. Amino acids and proteins are the building blocks of life. When proteins are digested or broken down, amino acids are left. The human body uses amino acids to make proteins to help the body: Break down food.

cannot be made by the body. As a result, they must come from food. The 9 essential amino acids are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.

Have all the essential amino acids our bodies need. Animal-based protein like meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, and cheese are considered complete proteins. Quinoa and soy are plant-based complete proteins.

Is one that does not contain all nine of those essential amino acids. Beans, specific nuts, and tofu are a couple examples of incomplete protein sources, so eating those foods alone for protein will not give you all of the amino acids your body needs.

B. an individual absorbs more nitrogen than is excreted

B. have lost blood or are malnourished

Is the number of calories required to keep your body functioning at rest. BMR is also known as your body's metabolism; therefore, any increase to your metabolic weight, such as exercise, will increase your BMR. To get your BMR, simply input your height, gender, age and weight below.

Occurs when your energy input is greater than your energy output. That is, you eat more calories than your body uses. Your body stores excess energy or calories as fat. This results in weight gain.

Weight loss occurs when you create a negative energy balance. That is, you burn more calories than you consume. When this imbalance occurs, your body burns stored energy (fat) in order to function and you lose weight. 7 A negative energy balance is sometimes called a calorie deficit.

A value derived from the mass (weight) and height of a person.

Above a weight considered normal or desirable.

The condition of being grossly fat or overweight.

Have different jobs—helping you resist infections, keeping your nerves healthy, and helping your body get energy from food or your blood to clot properly. By following the Dietary Guidelines, you will get enough of most of these vitamins from food.

Vitamin C functions

A. fat-soluble

A. Fat-soluble

A. Vitamin A

The function of it- to maintain normal blood levels of calcium and phosphorus. Vitamin D aids in the absorption of calcium, helping to form and maintain strong bones.

The function of it- is a fat-soluble nutrient found in many foods. In the body, it acts as an antioxidant, helping to protect cells from the damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals are compounds formed when our bodies convert the food we eat into energy.

B. blood clotting proteins

Kale, liver, spinach, parsley, butter, egg yolks

Include ascorbic acid (vitamin C), thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B₆ (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine), folacin, vitamin B₁₂, biotin, and pantothenic acid.

Any of a group of substances (the vitamin B complex ) which are essential for the working of certain enzymes in the body and, although not chemically related, are generally found together in the same foods. They include thiamine ( vitamin B₁ ), riboflavin ( vitamin B₂ ), pyridoxine ( vitamin B₆ ), and cyanocobalamin ( vitamin B₁₂ ).

C. water-soluble, essential vitamin

These vitamins can be easily destroyed or washed out during food storage and preparation. The B-complex group is found in a variety of foods: cereal grains, meat, poultry, eggs, fish, milk, legumes and fresh vegetables. Citrus fruits, peppers, strawberries, kiwis, and broccoli are good sources of vitamin C.

C. minerals

Meat, cereals, fish, milk and dairy foods, fruit and vegetables, and nuts.

A. major

C. blood clotting and neurotransmitter release

The main function of phosphorus is in the formation of bones and teeth. It plays an important role in how the body uses carbohydrates and fats. It is also needed for the body to make protein for the growth, maintenance, and repair of cells and tissues.

A mineral that your body needs to work properly. It is a type of electrolyte. It helps your nerves to function and muscles to contract. It helps your heartbeat stay regular.

to control blood pressure and blood volume. Your body also needs sodium for your muscles and nerves to work properly.

A chemical element present only in minute amounts in a particular sample or environment.

B. trace mineral, because less than 100 milligrams are required daily in the diet

C. mineral

Essential for the maintenance and solidification of our bones and prevents dental decay.

C. one-half

C. MyPlate

B. inhibits lipolysis and stimulate lipogenesis

D. It has no effect on body proteins

Refers to malnutrition which is caused by inadequate energy intake. This condition often occurs in relation to food insecurity or when adequate food is not available (in terms of total calories or specific micronutrients).

Results from an underlying disease that compromises growth directly or through its deleterious effect on appetite or the absorption of nutrients.

Suffering or death caused by hunger.

Characterized by weight loss and self-starvation. There is a fear of gaining weight and body dysmorphia is common.

An emotional disorder involving distortion of body image and an obsessive desire to lose weight, in which bouts of extreme overeating are followed by depression and self-induced vomiting, purging, or fasting.

A form of malnutrition. It happens when the intake of nutrients and energy is too low for a person's needs. It leads to wasting, or the loss of body fat and muscle. A child with marasmus may not grow as children usually do.

A form of severe protein malnutrition characterized by edema and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. It is caused by sufficient calorie intake, but with insufficient protein consumption, which distinguishes it from marasmus. Kwashiorkor cases occur in areas of famine or poor food supply.

A. lower

B. increase during the exercise and for hours afterwards

B. increases

D. oxygen consumption in order to indirectly measure heat production and energy expenditure.

C. energy used in a given period of time